THE    HISTORY   OF 
THE   AMERICAN    PEOPLE 


From  a  painting  by  Stuart 


GEORGE   WASHINGTON 


THE    HISTORY 


OF    THE 


AMERICAN    PEOPLE 


BY 

CHARLES   A.    BEARD 


WILLIAM    C.    BAGLEY 

V 

/  \  x^  " 


g0rfe 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
1919 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1918,  1919, 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY, 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  May,  1918. 


Norfoooti  ^ress 

J.  S.  Cashing  Co.  —Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

ONE  great  motive  has  dominated  the  content  and  ar 
rangement  of  this  volume  :  the  preparation  of  children  for 
citizenship  through  an  understanding  of  the  ideals,  institu 
tions,  achievements,  and  problems  of  our  country.  No 
mere  almanac  of  facts,  dates,  and  names,  no  matter  how 
exhaustive  or  how  presented,  can  accomplish  this  purpose. 
It  can  be  done  only  by  teaching  boys  and  girls  to  think  of 
events  and  issues  of  the  living  present  in  the  light  of  their 
historical  past,  by  giving  them  above  all  a  sense  of  historical 
continuity. 

We  have  sought  to  catch  the  deep-flowing  and  powerful 
currents  of  American  life,  to  present  them  fairly  and  justly, 
to  engage  the  interest  of  the  students  in  them,  and  to  show 
their  significance  to  the  issues  of  the  present  hour.  Only 
in  this  way  does  history  become  living.  Only  in  this  way 
can  pupils  be  shown  why  they  should  study  history.  Such 
a  story  of  American  life  and  labor  and  ideals,  if  rightly  told, 
must  challenge  the  admiration  and  faith  of  those  who  be 
lieve  that  democracy  is  not  to  perish  from  the  earth  but  to 
flourish  and  triumph  everywhere. 

In  carrying  out  our  ideal  we  have  selected  those  striking 
features  of  American  history  which  bear  upon  and  help  to 
explain  our  own  age.  We  have  conceived  of  the  whole  as 
a  vital,  moving  story  with  certain  very  definite  and  funda 
mental  acts  and  scenes.  We  have  sought  to  give  to  the  book 
that  unity  which  comes  from  such  a  controlling  purpose,  and 
have  subordinated  to  it  all  details  and  collateral  matter. 

In  the  execution  of  this  plan  we  divided  the  whole  field 


vi  PREFACE 

of  American  history  into  periods  and  topics.  Having  agreed 
upon  the  fundamentals  necessary  for  a  book  of  historical 
instruction  in  citizenship,  we  then  broke  each  fundamental 
up  into  its  essential  parts.  If  a  famous  event  or  time- 
honored  story  required  telling,  we  adjusted  it  to  the  unity 
so  planned.  At  no  time  did  we  permit  the  love  of  novelty 
or  mere  respect  for  the  traditional  materials  of  schoolbooks 
to  betray  us  into  sacrificing  the  sweep  of  the  magnificent 
story  to  the  supposed  requirements  of  the  all-comprehending 
"manual." 

i  This  plan  has  necessitated  the  omission  of  many  of  the 
staples  of  the  textbooks.  For  example,  the  space  given  to  the 
North  American  Indians  has  been  materially  reduced.  They 
are  interesting  and  picturesque,  but  they  made  no  impress 
upon  the  civilization  of  the  United  States.  In  a  history  de 
signed  to  explain  the  present  rather  than  to  gratify  curiosity 
and  entertain,  Indian  habits  of  life  and  Indian  wars  must  have 
a  very  minor  position.  So  it  is  with  many  a  famous  anec 
dote  used  to  adorn  our  history  tales.  They,  too,  have  been 
sacrificed,  with  regret  but  firmness,  to  the  guiding  purpose 
agreed  upon  at  the  outset. 

In  a  plan  so  conceived,  the  topical  method  of  treatment 
inevitably  takes  precedence  over  the  purely  chronological 
method.  One  striking  advantage  of  this  treatment  is  to 
bring  forcibly  to  the  attention  of  the  students  the  essential 
feature  of  each  historical  period.  It  helps  them  to  think 
of  history  in  terms  of  great  interests  and  achievements 
rather  than  in  terms  of  presidential  administrations.  The 
story  of  America  cannot  be  cut  into  quadrennial  sections. 
Nevertheless  the  topical  method  is  open  to  some  objections, 
and  we  have  tried  to  meet  them  by  summaries  and  tables 
and  in  many  instances  by  repetition  of  facts  in  different 
connections.  As  a  result  of  this  treatment  students  will  not 
gain,  for  example,  the  impression  that  the  people  of  this 


PREFACE  vii 

country,  between  1820  and  1860,  lived  either  by  presidential 
administrations  or  by  the  slavery  controversy  alone. 

American  history  should  not  be  presented  as  a  shadowy 
record  of  mysterious  personages,  far  removed  from  the  life 
and  labor  of  the  masses.  Such  history  does  not  interest  or 
inform  the  child.  Furthermore,  it  is  not  true  history. 
America  has  been  made  by  the  labors,  sacrifices,  and  ideals 
of  millions  of  men,  women,  and  children  unhonored  and  un 
sung  in  the  ordinary  books.  That  is  the  essence  of  democ 
racy.  The  fate  of  the  nation  in  a  very  real  sense  lies  in  the 
hands  of  their  sons  and  daughters  who  study  its  history  in 
the  public  schools.  They  are  to  be  the  makers  of  history  as 
well  as  the  students  of  it,  and  this  fact  cannot  be  too  often 
brought  home  to  them.  The  achievements,  traditions, 
ideals  of  the  past  --  these  are  sources  of  inspiration  to  those 
who  hold  the  future  in  their  hands.  To  help  make  these  an 
open  book  to  the  coming  generations  is  the  underlying  pur 
pose  of  this  volume. 

In  thus  recasting  American  history  we  think  that  we  have 
not  omitted  an  event  or  a  date  or  a  personality  of  cardinal 
importance.  Moreover,  we  have  endeavored  to  avoid  any 
thing  that  looks  like  distortion  to  meet  preconceived  views. 
We  have  sought  to  be  fair  to  all  parties  and  to  give  grounds 
for  just  judgment.  If  we  have  made  errors  of  omission  or 
commission,  we  shall  be  glad  to  learn  of  them  and  to  correct 
our  record  accordingly. 

C.  A.  B. 

W.  C.  B. 

NEW  YORK  CITY, 
April  19,  1918. 


TO  THE  TEACHER 

A  manual  for  teachers  has  been  prepared  to  accompany 
this  book.  There  are,  however,  certain  suggestions  regard 
ing  the  use  of  the  book  as  a  text  that  may  be  briefly  stated 
here : 

1.  The  chapters  are  subdivided  into  convenient  lesson- 
units.     The  questions  at  the  end  of  each  chapter  are  grouped 
and  numbered  (with  Roman  numerals)  according  to  these 
units. 

2.  The  "Problems  for  Further  Study"  given  at  the  close 
of  each  chapter  are  intended  to  be  only  suggestive  of  what 
pupils  may  be  asked  to  look  up  and  work  out  for  themselves, 
either  individually  or  in  groups.     Page  references  are  given 
in  connection  with  many  of  the  problems,  but  the  references, 
too,  are  only  suggestive.     Pupils  who  have  access  to  other 
books  should  be  encouraged  to  bring  in  additional  informa 
tion. 

3.  At  the  close  of  each  important  period  will  be  found  a 
list,   "Outline    for    Review."      Only    the    more    important 
topics  are  given  in  these  lists.     In  the  work  of  review  the 
pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  expand  the  outline  by  in 
serting  the  less  important  topics. 

4.  The  brief  lists  of  dates  and  names  that  appear  with 
the  "Outline  for  Review"  include  the  dates  and  names  that 
have  been  found  by  various  investigations  to  be  the  most 
important  in  connection  with  the  several  periods  of  Ameri 
can  history. 


Ylii 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  EUROPEAN  BEGINNINGS  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  i 

I.   The  Old  World  Background,  i.  —  II.    Life  of  the  People 
m  Europe :    the  Peasants,  6.  —  III.   The  Nobility,  the  Clergy, 
And    the     Kings;      the    Merchants    and.  Tradesmen,     10. — 
I/ IV.   The  Development  of  Trade,  14. 

II.  THE  BOLD  EXPLORERS 20 

I.  The  Need  of  a  Sea-Route  to  Asia :  the  Pioneer  Explora 
tions  of  the  Italians  and  Portuguese,  20.  —  II.  Christopher 
Columbus,  23.  —  III.  Da  Gama,  Vespucci,  Balboa,  and 
Magellan,  26.  —  IV.  The  Spanish  Conquests;  Further  Spanish 
Explorations,  28.  —  V.  The  French  and  the  English  Explora 
tions;  Conflict  between  England  and  Spain,  32. 

III.  FOUNDING  THE  ENGLISH  COLONIES  IN  AMERICA  /       .       38 

I.    Difficulties  and  Dangers  of  Settlement,  38.  —  II.    Condi 
tions  in  Europe  which  Led  to  the  Colonization  of  America,  41.  — 
III.    Other  Conditions  in  Europe  which  Led  to  the  Colonization 
of  America,  44.  —  IV.    English  Settlements  in  Virginia,  46.  — 
V.    English  Settlements  in  New  England,  50.  —  VI.    Maryland, 
Pennsylvania,    Delaware,   the  Carolinas,   and   Georgia,    56.  — 
VII.    New  York  and  New  Jersey,  60. 

IV.  PEOPLING  THE  AMERICAN  COLONIES         .    .     .         •/     •         .66 

I.  Important  Causes  of  Immigration,  67.  —  II.  Poverty  a 
Cause  of  Immigration;  Involuntary  Colonization,  71. 

V.  THE  STRUGGLE   AMONG  THE  POWERS  OF  EUROPE  FOR  NORTH 

AMERICA 77 

I.  French  Explorations  and  Settlements,  77.  —  II.  Differ 
ences  between  English  and  French  Policies  of  Colonization,  81. — 
III.  The  Struggle  between  French  and  English,  84.  —  IV.  The 
Spaniards  in  Louisiana  and  the  Southwest;  the  Russians  in  the 
Northwest,  90. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

VI.   LLFE,  LABOR,  AND  LIBERTY  IN  AMERICA  ON  THE  EVE  OF  THE 

REVOLUTION  .     •    .  .  .98 

I.  The  People  and  Their  Occupations :  Farming,  98.  — 
II.  Manufacturing,  Shipbuilding,  and  Commerce;  the  Cities; 
Travel,  103.  —  III.  Differences  in  Government  between 
Northern  and  Southern  Colonies,  107.  —  IV.  Likenesses  in 
Government  between  the  North  and  the  South,  in.  —  V.  Edu 
cation  in  the  Colonies;  Summary,  114. 


VIIV  CAUSES  OF  THE  AMERICAN  REVOLUTION        .         .         .         .119 
V  I.    England  Begins  to  Control  Colonial  Trade,  1 19.  —  II.  The 
Protests  of  the  Colonies  against  Taxation  without  Representa 
tion,  122.  —  III.    The  Crisis  Reached,  128. 

VIII.   THE  WAR  FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE    ....     136 

I.  The  Beginning  of  the  Conflict,  136.  <•—  II.  The  Northern 
Campaigns  and  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  140.  — 
III.  The  Middle  States  Campaigns  and  the  French/Alliance, 
144.  —  IV.  The  Southern  Campaigns;  the  War  s on  the  Sea 
and  in  the  West,  152.  —  V.  The  Treaty  of  Peace*£/Reasons  for 
the  Success  of  the  American  Cause,  156. 

[X.   THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  ....     164 

I.  The  Articles  of  Confederation  .ancLthe  First  State  Cpnjjti- 
tutions,  164.  ~—  II.  ^Government  under  the  Confederation;  jthe 
Constitutional  Convention,  167.  —  III.  The  Constitution  and 
its  Adoption,  170. 

/X.   TI^E-TIRST  GREAT  POLITICAL  CONTEST 181 

I.  Starting_the  New  Government, j8 1.  —  II.  Relations  with 
Europe,  187. 

XL   THE  [EXPANSION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES        ....     195 

I.  The  Party  of  the  Farmers  in  Power,  195.  —  II.  The. 
Loaiisian.a..Pu-Cchase-and  ttaJixploratipn  of  the  New  Territory, 
200.  —  III.  Elan_da;  The  Pacific  Northwest^2.o6. 

XII.   THE  CALL  OF  THE  LAND  IN  THE  GREAT  WEST    .         .         .     209 

I.    The^WesjejJi- County  Routes 

across  the  Mountains,  209.  —  II.    Westward  to  the  Mississippi, 
215.  —  III.    The  Life  of  the  People  on  the  Frontier,  222. 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XIII.  TROUBLESOME  FOREIGN  AFFAIRS:    THE  WAR  OF  1812  AND 

LATIN-AMERICAN  RELATIONS        .....     229 

I.   The  War  in  Europe  Involves  American  Commerce,  229. 

—  Ill  The  War_of_j8jL2j.  234.  —  III.    The    Spanish-American 
Republics,  240"" 

XIV.  THREE  DECADES  OF  DOMESTIC  POLITICS  (1815-1845)      .         .     247 
"i.    The    Protective   Tariff!  247.  —  II.    Political    Leadership 

still  Centered  in  the  East,  251.  —  III.    Jacksonian  Democracy^ 
/  Power  of  the  East  Contested^; 4.  —  IV.    The_Whig  Party,  261. 

XV.  WESTWARD  TO  THE  PACIFIC 266 

I.  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Iowa;  American  Settlements 
in  Texas,  267.  — •  II.  Teyagja__gepnhlir;  Its  Admission  fn  fjie 
IHjTJonj^the  Resulting  Waj^withJVLfixicxv-271..  —  III.  _Oregoji, 
California^  -and  Utah,  277.  —  IV  Summary  of.the  far  Westem 
Movement,  284. 

XVI.  THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 288 

I.  The  Development  of  Machinery  for  the  Cotton  and 
Woolen  Industries,  289.  —  II.  The  Iron  Industry;  Farm 
Machinery,  295.  —  III.  Improvements  in  Transportation; 
Canal  Development,  299.  —  IV.  The  Steamboat  and  the  Rail 
road,  302.  —  V.  The  Electric  Telegraph;  Ocean  Navigation, 
307- 

XVII.  GREAT   CHANGES  IN  AMERICAN  LIFE  BROUGHT  ABOUT  BY 

THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 312 

I.  Changes  in  Working  Conditions,  312.  —  II.  The  Labor 
Movement,  318.  —  III.  The  Growth  of  Cities;  Foreign  Trade; 
Conditions  in  the.. South,  322. 

.  XVIII.   THE  GROWTH  OF  POLITICAL  DEMOCRACY  IN  THE  UNITED 

STATES 328 

I.  The  Struggle  for  the  Right  to  Vote,  328.  —  II.  The 
Struggle  for  "Women's  Rights,"  335. 

XIX.   THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  POPULAR  EDUCATION   DURING   THE 

FIRST  HALF  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY        .         .     339 

I.  The  Development  of  Free  Elementary  Schools,  340.  — 
II.  High  Schools  and  Colleges;  the  Education  of  Women,  348. 

—  III.    The  Newspapers,  352.  —  IV.    Magazines,    Pamphlets, 
and  Books,  357. 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XX.   THE  GREAT  POLITICAL  CONFLICT  BETWEEN  THE  NORTH  AND 

THE  SOUTH 364 

I.  jlaven^  Becomes  a  National  Problem^j65.  —  IL  The 
Abolition  jV[ovementT  371.  —  III.  The  ^pm_pjrorr>jse^ ^£  iSjjp, 
j^~-— TVT~The_R^peal [_p£  the  JVIissouri  Compromise  andJ^S 
Consequences^ 3.79. _— V^_Ihe  Political  Situation  on  the  Eve  of 
the  Civil  War,  JH4. 

'XXI.   THE  CIVIL  WAR .     390 

y  I.    Secession,     390.  —  II.    Preparations     for     War,     395.  — 

III.  The  Campaigns  of  1861  and  1862,  398.  —  IV.  Emancipa 
tion,  403. —  V.  The  War  on  Water,  408.  —  VI.  The  Campaigns 
of  1863,  413. — VII.  The  Campaigns  of  1864  and  1865;  the 
End  of  the  War,  418.  —VIII.  The  Cost  of  the  War;  Women 
and  the  War,  423. 

XXII.  RECONSTRUCTION  IN  THE  SOUTH 430 

I.  Problems  of  Reconstruction,  430.  —  II.  Grant  as  Presi 
dent;  the  Rule  of  the  "Carpet-baggers,"  434. 

XXIII.  THE  RISE  OF  THE  NEW  SOUTH 442 

I.    The  South  in   Ruins  at  the  Close  of  the  War,  442.  — 

II.  The  Development  of  Farming  and  Manufacturing,  444.  — • 

III.  The  Race  Problem,  452. 

XXIV.  THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  FAR  WEST 455 

I.  The  "Far  West"  in  1860,  455.  —  II.  New  Western  States 
and  Territories,  458.  —  III.  The  Problem  of  the  Public  Land, 
466. 

XXV.  THE  TRIUMPH  OF  INDUSTRY 472 

I.    The  Development  of  Manufacturing  and  Mining,  472.  - 
II.    The    Development    of    Transportation,    477.  —  III.    The 
Army  of  Industry  :  Inventors,  Business  Men,  and  Artisans,  483. 
-  IV.    The  Results  of  Industrial  Development,  488. 

XXVI.  IMMIGRATION 496 

I.  The  Early  Sources  of  Immigration,  496.  —  II.  Changes 
in  Immigration  after  1890,  500.  —  III.  Later  Efforts  to  Restrict 
Immigration,  505. 


/ 


CONTENTS  xiii 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXVII.  COMBINATIONS  OF  CAPITAL  AND  OF  LABOR     .         .         .     508 

I.  Competition  in  Business  Leads  to  the  Formation  of 
"Trusts,"  508.  —  II.  The  Results  of  Combinations  of  Capital, 
510.  —  III.  The  Great  Strikes,  514.  —  IV.  The  Rise  of  Social 
ism,  517. 

XXVIII.  PARTIES  AND  POLITICAL  ISSUES       .....     522 
I.    The  Republican  and  Democratic  Administrations,  522.  — 

II.  The  Tariff  and  the  Income  Tax,  524.  —  III.  The  Currency 
Problem,  527.  —  IV.  The  Railroads;  the  Trusts;  Civil  Service 
Reform;  the  Liquor  Question,  532. 

XXIX.  FOREIGN  AFFAIRS  :     THE  UNITED   STATES  AS  A  WORLD 

POWER    ..........     539 

I.  Controversies  with  Great  Britain,  539.  —  II.  Samoa  and 
Hawaii  ;  the  Growth  of  Foreign  Trade,  542.  —  III.  The  Cuban 
Revolt  Leads  to  the  Spanish-American  War,  544.  —  IV.  The 
Results  of  the  War;  America's  New  Interests  in  the  Orient,  549. 

XXX.  ADVANCES  IN  POPULAR  EDUCATION     .....     557 

I.  The  Development  of  Schools  and  Colleges,  557.  —  II.  The 
Growth  of  Vocational  Education;  Educational  Extension;  the 
Higher  Education  of  Women,  561.  —  III.  Other  Educational 
Agencies,  566. 

~73t 

XX3Q.   THE  NEW  DEMOCRACY       .......     573 

I.  Causes  of  Increasing  Interest  in  the  Machinery  of  Govern 
ment,  573.  —  II.  Civil  Service  Reform;  the  Australian  Ballot; 
the  Initiative  and  Referendum,  575.  —  III.  The  Commission 
Form  of  City  Government  ;  Reforms  in  Political  Parties  ;  the 
Direct  Primary,  579.  —  IV.  Woman  Suffrage,  582. 

XXXII.  THE  OPENING  OF  THE  NEW  CENTURY     ....     588 

I.  Roosevelt's  Administration;  the  Conservation  Move 
ment,  588.  —  II.  The  Panama  Canal.  The  Treaty  of  Ports 
mouth,  592.  —  III.  Taft's  Administration  and  the  Campaign 
of  1912,  598.  —  IV.  Wilson's  Administration,  602. 

XXXIII.  THE  GREAT  WAR  ...  ...     609 

I.  American  Neutrality,  610.  —  II.  The  Submarine  Out 
rages;  the  Campaign  of  1916,  613.  —  III.  War  with  Germany, 
617.  —  IV.  The  German  Autocracy,  622.  —  V.  A  Democracy 
at  War,  626. 


xiv  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

IMPORTANT    HISTORICAL    EVENTS    ARRANGED    BY    PRESIDENTIAL 

ADMINISTRATION 642 

APPENDIX ,  647 

Declaration  of  Independence 647 

Annotated  Constitution  of  the  United  States         .         .         .         .651 

REFERENCE  BOOKS 665 

INDEX       .  669 

GROUPING  OF  CHAPTERS   FOR   REVIEW 

CHAPTERS  PAGES 

I-V     EXPLORATION,   SETTLEMENT,   AND    COLONI 
ZATION      1-97 

VI-IX    THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  INDEPENDENCE  AND  THE 

FOUNDING  OF  THE  NEW  NATION     .         .       98-180 
X-XIII     EARLY       POLITICAL      AND      TERRITORIAL 

GROWTH 181-246 

XIV-XIX     DEVELOPMENT    OF    NATIONAL    DEMOCRACY  ^- 

(1815-1860)      247-363 

XX-XXII     THE   SLAVEP.Y   PROBLEM,  THE  CIVIL  WAR, 

AND .  RECONSTRUCTION     ....     364-441 
XXIII-XXX     FIFTY  YEARS  OF  PROGRESS         .         .         .     442-572 
XXXI-XXXIII     THE    NEW    DEMOCRACY    AND   THE    GREAT 

WAR 573-638 

(Review  outlines  will  be  found  at  the  close  of  each  of  these  groups  of  chapters.) 


COLOR   PLATES 


FACING    PAGE 


The  Landing  of  Columbus  at  San  Salvador,  October  12,  1492     .         .  23 

The  Signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  July  4,  1776          .  143 
Joining  the  tracks  of  the  first  continental  railroad  at  Promontory, 

near  Ogden,  Utah,  in  1869    ....                   ...  479 

Building  Liberty  ships  on  the  Pacific  coast,  1918     ....  629 


COLOR   MAPS 

Europe  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  I 

English,  French,  and  Spanish  possessions  m  America,  1750      .         .  84 
North  America  according  to  the  Treaty  of  1783        .         .         .         .156 

The  United  States  in  1805 201 

Slave  and  free  soil  according  to  the  Dred  Scott  decision,  1857     .          .  385 

The  United  States  in  1861 391 

Continental  expansion  of  the  United  States 455 

The  United  States  in  1870 459 

The  United  States  in  1912 465 

Railway  combinations,  1910      ......         0          .  509 

American  dominions  in  the  Pacific    ....„„.  549 

The  Caribbean  region        .........  605 


BLACK  AND   WHITE   MAPS 


PAGE 


The  old  trade  routes  from  Venice  and  Genoa  to  the  Far  East           .  16 

The  known  world  about  the  time  of  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator      .  22 

The  voyages  of  Columbus «        .         .  27 

Great  voyages,  1492  to  1580 -34 

Land  granted  to  the  London  and  Plymouth  companies     ...  47 

Early  New  England  settlements    .                        53 

Early  settlements  in  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Delaware  .         .  56 

Early  settlements  in  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia        ....  59 

Early  settlements  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey       ....  62 

French  explorations  and  trading  posts       ......  78 

Fort  Duquesne  and  vicinity      .                   86 

European   possessions   in  America,   1763,  with    British   possessions 

before  that  date  indicated 89 

The  colonies  and  the  extent  of  settlement  on  the  eve  of  the  Revolution  1 29 

Boston  and  vicinity 140 

The  Revolutionary  War  in  the  North .145 

Burgoyne's  expedition 148 

Scene  of  the  Revolutionary  War  in  the  South 151 


xvi  OUTLINE  MAPS 


The  expedition  of  George  Rogers  Clark 

The  extent  of  territory  settled  in  1790 

The  regions  explored  by  Lewis  and  Clark  and  by  Zebulon  Pike 
The   Northwest  Territory,  showing  the   boundaries  of  the   states 

that  were  later  created  from  it  .         .         .         .         .211 

The  Cumberland  Road,  showing  also  the  section  on  the  western 

end  that  was  never  completed 220 

Scene  of  the  War  of  1812 237 

Texas  and  the  territory  in  dispute 273 

Field  of  the  campaigns  in  the  War  with  Mexico       ....  275 

The  Oregon  country  and  the  disputed  boundary      ....  278 

The  overland  trails  .         . 280 

The   Erie  Canal,  begun   under  the  direction  of  Governor  DeWitt 

Clinton  in  1817,  and  completed  in  1875        .... 

The  Missouri  Compromise 

The  Kansas- Nebraska  territory  opened  to  slavery  in  1854 
Field  of  many  of  the  battles  of  the  war  in  the  East 

The  war  in  the  West 

The    blockade    of  the    southern    coast  to    cut  off    trade    between 

Europe  and  the  South           .......  409 

Sherman's  march  to  the  sea      .         . 419 

Cotton  regions  of  the  United  States 447 

The  percentage  of  negroes  in  the  total  population  of  each  state  of 

the  United  States          . 452 

Railroads  of  the  United  States  in  1860 456 

Iron  deposits  of  the  United  States 473 

Coal  deposits  of  the  United  States    .......  476 

Distribution  of  manufacturing  in  the  United  States  (annual  value)  477 

Railroads  of  the  United  States  in  1918 478 

Transportation  routes,  telegraph  lines  and  cables  of  the  world          .  480 

The  westward  movement  of  the  center  of  population        .         .         .  490 

Percentage  of  foreign-born  combined  in  the  total  population  .         .  503 

Federal  reserve  districts .  53 1 

Wet  and  dry  territorial  map  of  the  United  States,  April,  1918  .         .  535 

The  West  Indies 546 

The  Orient  and  the  Philippines 550 

Suffrage  map  of  the  United  States 585 

National  forests,  1918         .........  591 

The  principal  trade  routes  through  the  Panama  Canal      .         .         .  593 

The  Panama  Canal  Zone,  the  canal,  and  the  railroad         .         .         .  595 

The  Western  Battle  Front  in  France 633 


THE    HISTORY   OF 
THE   AMERICAN    PEOPLE 


THE    HISTORY    OF    THE 
AMERICAN    PEOPLE 

CHAPTER  ! 
EUROPEAN  BEGINNINGS  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY 

The  United  States  is  one  of  the  youngest  nations  of  the 
earth.  Centuries  before  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
there  were  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  northern  Africa  many 
powerful  countries  in  which  dwelt  kings,  nobles,  priests, 
teachers,  merchants,  skilled  workmen,  and  peasants.  Our 
sister  republic  of  the  Orient,  China,  had  been  a  civilized 
nation  for  thousands  of  years  when  the  old  Liberty  Bell  at 
Philadelphia  rang  out  the  tidings  of  the  new  America  on 
July  4,  1776. 

I.   THE  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

The  United  States  is  the  heir  of  all  the  ages.  We  are  in 
debted  to  the  most  ancient  peoples,  the  Egyptians,  Hebrews, 
Arabs,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  who  studied  the  world  and  human 
life  and  recorded  their  ideas  in  many  books.  They  did  not 
invent  the  typewriter  or  the  telephone ;  but  they  produced 
great  works  of  art,  built  up  long-enduring  systems  of  law 
and  government,  created  the  science  of  mathematics,  and 
went  deeply  into  mechanics  and  navigation.  They  wrote 
learned  works  and  mastered  many  of  the  mysteries  of 
nature.  To  them  we  owe  our  religious  faith  and  much  of 
our  wisdom. 


...Tf}E  HISTORY:  CF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


In  the^middlecana  Igtet  ages,  the  Christian  religion  was 
spread  :by-'*C'atholic*  missionaries  among  the  barbarians  of 
northern  Europe  even  to  the  borders  of  Iceland ;  the  great 
states  of  Spain,  France,  and  England  were  built  up  out  of 
warring  principalities  ;  universities  were  founded  ;  and  the 
light  of  science,  which  went  out  after  the  fall  of  Rome,  was 


THE  CANTER- 
Men  and  women  of  Chaucer's  time,  less  than  one 

kindled  once  more.     The  distant  past  was, linked  to  an  age 
which  saw  the  discovery  of  the  New  World. 

The  very  language  spoken  by  the  men  who  sailed  the 
ships  which  Columbus  commanded  had  come  down  from 
the  language  of  the  ancient  Romans.  The  language  of 
the  American  people,  the  language  in  which  this  book  is 
written,  had  its  origin  hundreds  of  years  before  any 
English  explorers  set  foot  on  this  continent.  Many  a  good 
book  and  story  had  been  written  in  it.  Some  of  the 
theories  which  we  now  hold  about  government,  the  right 
to  vote,  the  ownership  of  property,  education,  labor  and 
capital,  were  formed  long  before  America  was  discovered. 


EUROPEAN  BEGINNINGS  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY 


3 


Most  of  the  ideas  which  we  think  new  and  modern  had 
already  been  debated  in  Europe  at  a  time  when  this  coun 
try  was  only  a  hunting  ground  for  Indian  tribes.  It  was 
the  people  of  Europe,  with  religious  faith,  notions  of  gov 
ernment,  and  habits  of  life  already  formed  who  founded 
the  United  States. 


BURY  PILGRIMS 

hundred  years  before  the  discovery  of  America. 


From  a  Painting  by  R.  A.  Stothard 


America  would*  {iave  been  discovered  had  there  been  no 
Columbus ;  but  there  could  have  been  no  United  States 
had  it  not  been  for  the  tens  of  thousands  of  peasants, 
artisans,  merchants,  sailors,  and  adventurers  —  common 
men  and  women  —  who  braved  the  dangers  of  long 
ocean  voyages,  cut  down  the  forests,  cleared  the  land, 
built  the  towns,  drove  back  the  Indians,  and  pushed 
the  line  of  peaceful  homesteads  across  the  American 
continent  until  it  touched  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Our  first 
thought  should  be,  therefore,  about  the  sorts  and  con 
ditions  of  men  and  women  who  first  settled  in  the  New 
World. 


4  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

Why  the  American  Explorers  and  Colonists  Came  from 
Western  Europe.  —  If  we  look  at  the  map  of  Europe  at 
the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  century,  we  see  many  things 
that  help  us  in  finding  out  about  the  beginnings  of  American 
history.  We  discover  at  a  glance  why  it  was  that  the  rival 
nations  which  fought  to  own  the  New  World  were,  neces 
sarily,  Spain,  France,  and  England.  They  had  once  been 
divided,  like  Germany  and  Italy,  into  duchies,  kingdoms, 
and  principalities ;  but  at  last  the  people  in  each  of  them  — 
as  the  solid  color  of  the  map  shows  —  had  been  united 
under  one  ruler,  and  were  at  peace  among  themselves. 
Fighting  men  had  to  seek  adventure  away  from  home. 
Trade  flourished  and  merchants  looked  abroad  for  .new 
worlds  to  win.  All  three  countries  likewise  had  long  coast 
lines,  which  induced  many  of  their  inhabitants  to  undertake 
shipping,  trading,  and  sea-roving  for  a  livelihood. 

These  countries  were  moreover  far  away  from  the  sea 
ports  on  the  eastern  Mediterranean  through  which  came 
the  silks,  spices,  precious  stones,  and  other  valuable  articles 
of  trade.  Accordingly  they  had  to  pay  heavy  tribute  to  the 
Italian  merchants  who  brought  Asiatic  goods  to  western 
Europe,  and  they  were  very  anxious  to  open  up  direct 
trade  with  the  East.  Portugal  was  in  a  similar  position,  but 
her  territory  was  small  and  she  fell  under  Spanish  dominion 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  Therefore  she  was  not  an  im 
portant  factor  in  the  actual  settlement  of  the  New  World, 
although  her  sailors  were  among  the  bravest  explorers  and 
founded.  Brazil. 

Conditions  in  Middle  Europe  in  the  Sixteenth  Century. 
-  As  we  move  eastward  along  the  map  we  find  very  dif 
ferent  conditions.  Instead  of  the  united  Germany  of  our 
time,  whose  ships  before  the  Great  War  plowed  every  sea, 
and  whose  busy  merchants  went  into  every  corner  of  the 
earth,  we  see  a  country  divided  into  hundreds  of  petty 


EUROPEAN   BEGINNINGS  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY       5 

states.  They  were  all  united,  it  is  true,  under  what  was 
known  as  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  but  the  power  of  the 
emperor  was  very  slight  and  the  rulers  of  the  little  states 
were,  for  practical  purposes,  independent.  They  were 
frequently  at  war  with  one  another  and  often  they  secured 
foreign  aid  in  wars  upon  their  own  neighbors.  Owing  to 
these  petty  conflicts  trade  could  not  flourish  and  the  energies 
of  the  people  were  consumed  in  civil  strife. 

Between  Germany  and  Russia  stretched  the  territory 
of  Poland,  which  was  destined,  long  afterward,  to  be 
divided  among  Prussia,  Russia,  and  Austria,  and  to  dis 
appear  from  the  map  altogether.  Russia  then  faced  east 
ward  rather  than  toward  Europe ;  and  about  as  little  was 
known  in  England  of  the  life  of  the  Russian  people  as 
was  known  of  the  East  Indies  and  China.  The  Rus 
sians  had  little  to  sell  to  western  Europe  except  timber 
and  furs,  and  there  was  not  much  traffic  between  the 
two  sections.  To  the  southeast,  from  the  Black  Sea  to 
the  Adriatic,  lay  the  vast  dominion  of  the  Sultan  of 
Turkey,  who  had  no  part  in  European  civilization. 

The  Smaller  European  Countries.  --  Far  to  the  north 
there  were  the  people  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark, 
who  were  united  under  one  mon^ich.  They  had  not  yet 
taken  much  part  in  Mediterranean  commerce,  although 
there  were  among  them  many  seafaring  men.  It  is  true 
that  the  Swedes  later  set  up  trading  posts  on  the  banks 
of  the  Delaware  River,  after  the  other  countries  had  shown 
the  way  to  the  New  World,  but  these  tiny  colonies  were 
soon  lost.  The  Dutch,  at  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  were  subjects  of  the  Spanish  king.  It  was  not 
until  they  won  their  independence  by  heroic  fighting  about 
a  hundred  years  later  that  they  became  formidable  rivals  of 
the  other  nations  at  sea. 

Far  to  the  south  on  the  Mediterranean  dwelt  the  Italians. 


6  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

Their  position  between  Asia  and  western  Europe  and  their 
long  coast  lines  invited  them  to  embark  on  voyages.  If 
anyone  is  surprised  that  Italy  furnished  Columbus  to  Spain 
and  yet  was  unable  to  accomplish  anything  herself  in  the 
New  World,  a  glance  at  the  map  explains  it  all.  Italy 
at  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  century  was  broken  up  into 
tiny  independent  states  and  cities.  Italy  was  a  name,  not 
a  nation. 

II.   LIFE  OF  THE  PEOPLE  IN  EUROPE  :  THE  PEASANTS 

Such  were  the  political  conditions  of  Europe,  which 
helped  to  determine  what  nations  were  to  struggle  for  the 
possession  of  the  New  World.  We  must  study  also  the 
social  conditions  of  Europe  to  find  out  what  kinds  of  men 
and  women  were  ready  to  settle  in  America. 

The  Peasants. --The  first  important  fact  is  that  the 
great  majority  of  the  people  of  all  the  European  countries 
were  peasants,  engaged  in  farming.  They  were  not  like 
the  American  farmers  who  so  commonly  own  land  or  rent 
it  and  are  free  to  move  about  over  the  country  at  will. 
Very  few  peasants  owned  the  fields  in  which  they  worked, 
and  they  gained  little  beyond  a  scanty  living,  even  when 
they  were  freemen  tilling  their  own  land. 

Most  of  the  peasants  were  serfs  or  half-slaves  bound 
to  the  soil.  Nearly  all  land  was  owned  by  great  landlords 
—  dukes,  earls,  barons,  bishops,  and  other  dignitaries  —  and 
the  peasants  merely  had  the  right  to  cultivate  certain  little 
plots  in  return  for  payments  made  to  their  landlords  in  labor, 
produce,  and  money.  A  serf  could  not  leave  the  estate 
on  which  he  was  born ;  he  could  not  have  his  grain  ground 
anywhere  except  at  his  lord's  mill ;  he  could  not  marry 
without  the  lord's  consent.  When  he  died,  the  lord  took 
a  part  of  his  little  flock  or  herd  from  his  family  as  a  sort  of 
inheritance  tax. 


EUROPEAN  BEGINNINGS  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY       7 


PLOWING 


SOWING 


From  Prothero's  English  Farming,  Past  and  Present 

REAPING 


The  peasants  gained  little  beyond  a  scanty  living,  even  when  they  were  freemen,  tilling 

their  own  land. 


8  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

In  England,  however,  by  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth 
century  serfdom  had  almost  disappeared ;  that  is,  the 
peasants  had  become  simply  renters  of  farm  lands?  "  agri 
cultural  laborers,"  as  they  were  called  in  that  country. 
They  were  not  much  better  off  than  the  serfs  on  the  conti 
nent,  for  their  rents  were  high  and  only  a  few  of  them  could 
ever  expect  to  own  plots  of  land  outright.  The  landlord 
looked  upcn  them  as  inferior  creatures,  and,  whenever  he 
went  by,  they  had  to  take  off  their  hat?  ;3  him. 

Those  peasants  who  left  their  little  /illages  and  were 
caught  wandering  about  in  the  towns  without  any  money 
or  occupation  were  liable  to  be  arrested  as  "  sturdy  beggars," 
branded  1  with  hot  irons,  and  sent  back  to  the  places  they 
had  left. 

How  the  Peasants  Lived.  -  -  The  European  peasants  did 
not  live  in  farmhouses  scattered  about  over  the  country  as 
do  the  farmers  in  the  United  States  to-day.  They  dwelt 
huddled  up  together  in  little  villages,  often  under  the 
frowning  walls  of  a  great  castle  where  their  lord  lived. 
Their  houses  were  almost  as  crude  as  the  huts  of  some  of 
the  North  American  Indians.  The  roofs  were  made  of 
thatched  straw  and,  more  often  than  not,  leaked  when  heavy 
rains  fell.  The  walls  of  the  houses  were  of  wood  and 
plaster  and  sometimes  of  stone.  The  floors  were  of  dirt  or, 
occasionally,  stone  flagging.  There  were  no  glass  windows 
except  -'n  the  houses  of  the  well-to-do.  Slits  in  the  walls 
of  the  oerPs  cottage,  covered  with  thin  skins,  let  in  enough 
light  to  enable  the  housewife  to  do  her  daily  tasks.  The 
work  of  the  women  was  by  no  means  all  indoors,  for  they 
toiled  in  the  fields  with  the  men  from  early  dawn  till  dusk, 
and  made  "  regular  hands  "  at  harvest  time. 

The    Peasantry    Not    Educated.  —  As    for  education,    the 

1  An  interesting  story  of  the  life  of  the  English  common  people  in  those  old 
days  is  told  in  Mark  Twain's  "The  Prince  and  the  Pauper." 


EUROPEAN   BEGINNINGS  OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY       9 

peasants  had  none.  They  could  not  read  or  write,  and 
it  was  an  especially  gifted  one  who  could  solve  the  easiest 
problem  in  arithmetic.  It  was  customary  for  each  land 
lord  to  have  a  bailiff  who  kept  the  books  of  his  es 
tate.  The  idea  that  the  peasant  or  his  wife  and  children 
had  minds  of  their  own  which  were  worth  training,  or 
that  they  had  intelligence  enough  to  do  anything  except  the 
simplest  farm  tasks,  had  not  entered  the  heads  of  the  kings 
or  the  nobles  or  even  of  the  peasants  themselves. 

There  were,  of  course,  no  newspapers.  Printed  books 
were  just  beginning  to  be  circulated  in  small  numbers,  so 
it  was  a  rare  village  which  had  a  book  of  any  kind  or  even 
a  manuscript. 

The  peasants  had  little  knowledge  of  the  world.  They 
were,  no  doubt,  vaguely  aware  that  there  were  other 
countries,  for  often  one  or  two  members  of  the  village  had 
been  abroad  fighting,  and  had  learned  something  about 
foreign  peoples.  Strange  rumors  and  gossip  concerning  dis 
tant  parts  of  the  south  were  picked  up  from  strolling  players 
and  peddlers  and  at  the  market  town,  a  few  miles  away, 
where  the  peasant  bought  salt,  iron  tools,  and  simple  articles 
from  traveling  merchants. 

The  Peasants  Had  No  Part  in  the  Government. --The 
peasants  and  serfs  paid  taxes,  and  fought  in  battles 
sometimes,  but  they  rarely  had  any  share  in  the  govern 
ment.  The  countries  of  Europe  were  almost  all  ruled  by 
kings  and  princes  who  laid  taxes,  made  laws,  declared  war, 
and  concluded  peace  at  their  own  will.  To  them  the  idea 
that  the  mass  of  the  people  laboring  in  the  fields  should 
have  any  voice  in  saying  how  much  money  they  should  grant 
to  the  government,  or  when  war  should  be  declared,  was 
absurd.  The  chief  duties  of  the  peasants  were  to  pay  taxes, 
to  work  on  the  king's  highways,  and  to  rear  stalwart  sons  for 
the  king's  army. 


10 


THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


III.   THE  NOBILITY,  THE  CLERGY,  AND  THE  KINGS  ;  THE 
MERCHANTS  AND  TRADESMEN 

The  Nobility;  a  Separate  Caste.  --Two  thirds  or  more  of 
the  land  which    the    peasants    and   serfs  tilled  was  owned 


Xtsgt,* 


m 

*&&?£'      c*^  ^WS 

;  irfjn^.fittd'M^^^ 


•v» 


^ 
•jif 


pvyv  yvwrBV'WWrWi.l 

''Gwxy&i^ 


THE  FEUDAL  CASTLE  OF  A  GREAT  LORD 


Under  the  frowning  walls  of  the  castle  the  peasants  dwelt  huddled  up  together  in  little 

villages. 

by  nobles,  great  and  small,  who  formed  a  distinct  class 
known  as  the  nobility.  The  nobles  differed  greatly 
among  themselves.  Some  owned  small  estates  from  which 


EUROPEAN  BEGINNINGS  OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY     n 

they  could  scarcely  wring  enough  to  live  in  idleness.  Others 
held  vast  domains  composed  of  hundreds  of  villages  and 
sometimes  containing  one  or  more  large  towns.  They  often 
fought  among  themselves  for  more  land,  and  for  a  long  time 
they  furnished  practically  all  of  the  fighting  men  for  the 
kings  when  the  latter  were  at  war.  From  the  nobles  the 
kings  drew  their  chief  advisers  and  their  army  officers. 

The  nobles  everywhere  were  proud  of  their  families,  and 
they  looked  down  upon  the  merchants  and  the  peasants. 
It  was  hard  to  "  break  into  "  the  nobility.  Rank  was  a  mat 
ter  of  birth,  not  of  labor  or  riches  or  brave  deeds,  though 
sometimes  a  king  would  make  a  nobleman  out  of  a  com 
moner  because  the  latter  had  rendered  some  important 
service  or  in  some  other  way  had  gained  royal  favor. 

The  Clergy.  —  Scarcely  less  rich  and  powerful  than  the 
nobility  was  the  class  composed  of  the  clergy.  At  the 
opening  of  the  sixteenth  century,  all  western  Europe  was 
Catholic  and  under  one  head  of  the  Church,  the  Pope 
at  Rome.  The  Church  was  a  religious  or  clerical  govern 
ment  within  the  civil  government.  All  western  Chris 
tendom  was  divided  into  districts  presided  over  by  arch 
bishops  and  bishops  owing  allegiance  to  the  Pope  at  Rome. 
Bishoprics  were  laid  out  into  parishes,  and  the  religious  life 
of  each  parish  was  committed  to  the. care  of  a  priest  selected, 
as  a  rule,  by  the  lord  of  the  village,  perhaps  with  the  con 
sent  of  the  bishop.  Every  country  was  dotted  over  with 
monasteries,  where  dwelt  the  monks  of  the  various  orders- 
Benedictines,  Carthusians,  Franciscans,  and  others.  There 
were  also  many  convents,  to  which  women  turned  from  the 
cares  and  dangers  of  the  world. 

The  Power  of  the  Clergy.  —  In  each  country  the  thou 
sands  of  priests,  monks,  bishops,  archbishops,  and  other 
religious  persons,  constituted  a  distinct  class,  like  the  no 
bility.  As  the  clergy,  they  were,  of  course,  separated  from 


12 


THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


other  people  on  account  of  the  religious  vows  which  they 
had  taken,  and  of  their  consecration  to  .religious  labors. 
All  were  bound  into  one  great  brotherhood  of  the  faithful 
by  spiritual  ties. 

Furthermore,  the  clergy  were  as  a  class  extremely  wealthy. 
The  village  priest  was  often  poor,  but  the  clergy  as  a  whole 
possessed  great  estates,  and  the  bishops  and  archbishops 
sometimes  ruled  domains  as  extensive  as  kingdoms,  kept 
armies,  and  controlled  the  government.  It  is  safe  to  say 
that  nearly  a  third  of  the  farming  lands  of  England, 

France,  and  Spain  be 
longed  to  the  clergy. 
In  addition  to  the  rents 
and  dues  which  they 
gathered  from  the  peas 
ants  just  like  other  land 
lords,  they  collected 
tithes  l  and  fees  of  many 
kinds. 

The  Clergy  the  Only 
Educated  Class. — There 
were  other  reasons,  in 
addition  to  their  wealth 
and  spiritual  power,  for 
the  deep  influence  of  the 
clergy  over  the  people. 

A  MONK  ILLUMINATING  A  BOOK  Practically  all  learning, 

The  clergy  was  the  only  educated  class.  religious  as  Well  as  SCCU- 

lar,  was  in  their  control. 

They  wrote  the  books,  taught  in  the  schools,  tutored 
princes  and  sons  of  noblemen,  and  did  a  great  deal  of 

1  It  was  an  ancient  custom  that  a  certain  portion  of  the  produce  of  each  com 
munity  should  go  to  the  support  of  the  church.  This  portion,  supposed  to  be 
about  one  tenth,  was  known  as  the  "tithe." 


EUROPEAN   BEGINNINGS  OF  AMERICAN    HISTORY     13 

the  legal  work  now  intrusted  to  lawyers.  The  universities 
were  all  under  clerical  control,  and  were,  in  fact,  con 
ducted  principally  for  the  purpose  of  educating  clergymen 
-  for  the  nobles  were  often  quite  as  ignorant  of  literature 
and  science  as  the  peasants  who  tilled  their  fields. 

The  Power  of  the  Kings.  —  At  the  opening  of  the  six 
teenth  century  in  England,  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal 
the  government  was  in  the  hands  of  the  kings.  England 
had,  it  is  true,  a  Parliament  composed  of  a  House  of  Lords 
and  a  House  of  Commons,  the  latter  made  up  of  represent 
atives  chosen  by  the  smaller  landlords  of  the  counties  and 
the  burgesses  or  citizens  of  the  towns.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
however,  the  English  sovereign  collected  taxes,  issued 
decrees,  punished  subjects,  and  declared  war  about  as  he 
pleased.  If  the  Parliament  objected  seriously  to  the  king's 
doings,  he  could  easily  "  pack  "  it  with  servile  favorites, 
who  would  do  his  bidding.  In  France,  also,  there  was  a 
shadow  of  a  parliament ;  but  it  had  even  less  power  than 
the  English  legislature  and  early  in  the  seventeenth  century 
it  disappeared  altogether.  In  Spain  and  Portugal  the 
power  of  the  king  was  equally  great. 

Tyrannical  as  the  king  sometimes  was,  he  aided  in  the 
progress  of  his  country  in  many  ways.  He  kept  peace 
within  his  kingdom,  for  one  thing,  by  suppressing  the  great 
barons  and  nobles  -who  were  often  not  much  better  than 
brigands,  preying  on  the  travelers  and  merchants  who 
passed  through  their  domains.  The  king  built  great  high 
ways,  developed  uniform  laws  in  all  parts  of  his  country,  and 
created  a  single  system  of  coinage.  He  maintained  good 
order  so  that  merchants  and  adventurers  might  travel  in 
safety  from  one  end  of  his  realm  to  the  other.  He  often 
furnished  money  for  voyages  of  discovery  and  exploration. 

The  Merchants  and  Tradesmen.  —  In  this  way  the  king 
helped  the  growth  of  a  new  and  important  class  in  society, 


14          THE  HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

the  merchants  and  tradesmen  who,  from  the  sixteenth 
century  onward,  were  destined  to  play  a  great  part  in 
the  history  of  the  world.  They  took  the  leadership  in 
encouraging  handicrafts  at  home  and  bringing  goods  from 
foreign  lands.  Thus  there  came  to  be  in  every  country 
of  western  Europe  a  group  of  men  distinct  from  the  clergy, 
the  nobility,  and  the  peasants  —  a  group  which  owned  not 
land  and  castles  and  monasteries,  but  ships  and  stocks  of 
goods  and  money.  Being  constantly  engaged  in  traveling 
or  bartering  with  peoples  of  other  countries,  the  "  merchant 
adventurers,"  as  they  were  sometimes  called,  were  better 
acquainted  with  the  world  than  the  other  classes.  They 
were  prepared  for  almost  any  changes  that  meant  an  in 
crease  in  business. 

The  Artisans.  —  In  the  towns  were  to  be  found  skilled  iron 
workers,  weavers,  dyers,  and  other  craftsmen  engaged  in 
making  articles  to  sell.  The  artisans  of  each  craft  were 
organized  into  unions  or  "  gilds,"  and  exercised  strict  con 
trol  over  their  respective  industries. 


IV.   THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  TRADE 

The  most  desirable  luxuries,  such  as  spices,  rugs,  silks, 
porcelains,  and  perfumes,  came  from  far  away — from 
Persia,  India,  China,  and  other  distant  lands.  These 
regions  had  been  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  who 
carried  on  considerable  trade  with  them ;  and  even  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  when  the  barbarians  overran  the  former  Ro 
man  Empire,  all  that  had  been  known  of  the  Far  East  was 
not  wholly  forgotten.  During  the  Crusades  made  by 
Christian  warriors  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries 
to  rescue  the  tomb  of  the  Savior  from  the  hands  of  the 
Mohammedans,  soldiers  and  travelers  went  as  far  east  as 
Egypt  and  Syria. 


EUROPEAN   BEGINNINGS  OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY    15 

Marco  Polo. —-Toward  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
two  famous  Venetian  merchants,  the  Polo  brothers,  jour 
neyed  so  far  into  China  that  they  reached  Pekin,  and  were 
welcomed  by  the  Emperor  of  the  Mongols.  Later  the  son 
of  one  of  the  merchants,  Marco  Polo,  set  out  for  China 
and  stayed  there  many  years,  visiting  different  places  and 
becoming  acquainted  with  the  habits  and  trade  of  the 
Chinese. 

When  Marco  Polo  returned  to  Venice,  in  1295,  bringing 
diamonds,  rubies,  and  sapphires,  he  excited  interest  among 
other  adventurous  persons.  Polo  not  only  boasted  among 
his  friends  of  the  things  he  had  seen,  but  he  wrote  a  book 
in  which  he  described  at  length  his  wonderful  experi 
ences  in  that  mysterious  land.  In  this  book  he  told  of 
the  magnificent  palace  of  the  emperor,  with  its  halls  of  gold 
and  silver,  .its  jeweled  panels,  and  its  gorgeous  tapestries. 
He  described  the  fine  dress  worn  at  the  royal  court --the 
robes  of  silk  and  beaten  gold  and  girdles  set  with  precious 
stones.  Polo  spread  about  the  idea  that  riches  fairly  grew 
on  trees  in  the  Orient.  Naturally,  credulous  people  wanted 
to  go  and  pick  them. 

Carrying  Eastern  Goods  to  Western  Europe.  —  After  Polo's 
time  the  trade  of  Europe  with  the  Far  East  increased 
steadily.  Silks,  spices,  and  other  rich  stuffs  were  brought 
along  several  overland  routes  from  China,  India,  and  Persia 
to  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  thence 
they  were  carried  principally  to  the  Italian  cities  of 
Venice  and  Genoa.  From  these  ports  they  were  taken  by 
various  ways,  usually  overland,  until  they  reached  distant 
points  like  London,  Paris,  and  Antwerp.  In  Germany  there 
was  a  series  of  trading  centers,  Cologne,  Bremen,  and  Lii- 
beck,  largely  interested  in  this  traffic.  Sometimes  Italian 
merchants  from  Genoa  or  Venice  would  venture  to  send  a 
shipload  of  the  precious  goods  out  through  the  gateway  of 


i6 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


the  Mediterranean  at  Gibraltar  and  up  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  as  far  as  Bruges  (in  what  is  now  Belgium),  and  even 
to  London. 

Trade  among  the  Western  Nations. -- In  addition  to  this 
eastern  traffic,  there  was  a  growing  trade  among  the 
nations  of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Great  bales 
of  wool  were  sent  from  England  to  France  to  be  woven 
into  fine  cloth.  In  the  little  towns  like  London,  Paris, 


Wm«.Kng.Co.,N.». 


THE  OLD  TRADE  ROUTES  FROM  VENICE  AND  GENOA  TO  THE  FAR  EAST 

Bristol,  Bruges,  and  Antwerp,  hand  manufactories  began  to 
flourish.  Even  the  peasants  in  the  country  had  to  have  salt 
and  some  iron,  and  merchants  had  early  begun  to  travel 
about  in  wagons  with  these  supplies.  It  was  a  general 
practice  to  have  markets  or  fairs  in  the  principal  towns,  to 
which  merchants  and  peasants  from  the  outlying  districts 
would  go  to  trade.  The  county  fair,  so  famous  in  the 
United  States,  is  simply  a  relic  of  an  ancient  institution 
which  was  once  a  real  service  to  the  people. 


EUROPEAN   BEGINNINGS  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY     17 

The   Rigid    Separation  of    Classes   in   Europe.  —  All    the 

various  classes  which  have  just  been  described  —  nobles, 
clergy,  peasants,  merchants,  and  artisans  —  were  kept 
quite  separate  in  the  Europe  of  Columbus'  day.  The  son 
of  a  peasant  was  almost  certain  to  be  a  peasant,  the  son  of  a 
merchant  a  merchant,  the  son  of  a  nobleman  a  nobleman. 
The  daughters,  at  the  dictates  of  their  overlords  or  parents, 
always  married  in  the  class  to  which  they  belonged.  Few 
of  them  expected  to  rise  out  of  the  group  in  which  they 
were  born.  Only  the  clergy  came  from  the  other  classes. 
Often  a  clever  peasant  boy  escaped  from  servitude  in  the 
fields  and  entered  the  Church,  and  sometimes  the  son  of  a 
nobleman  took  up  the  religious  life. 

Generally  speaking,  there  was  no  opportunity  for  the  poor 
person  to  leave  the  class  to  which  he  was  born.  This  state 
of  affairs  was  regarded  by  all  as  perfectly  "  natural,"  just 
as  natural  as  for  boys  and  girls  to  go  to  school  in  our 
time. 

Such  was  the  Old  World  out  of  which  were  to  come  the 
people  to  settle  America. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.  Be  sure  that  you  understand  what  years  are 
meant  when  we  speak  of  the  "fifteenth  century,"  the 
"sixteenth  century,"  etc.1  In  what  centuries  were  the 
following  dates:  1215,  1400,  1492,  1519,  1601,  1776? 
2.  Why  should  we  know  something  about  the  history  of 
Europe  in  order  to  understand  the  history  of  our  own 
country?  3.  What  countries  in  western  Europe  at  the 
close  of  the  sixteenth  century  had  about  the  same  bound 
aries  that  they  have  to-day  ?  4.  What  European  coun 
tries,  now  united,  were  at  that  time  divided  into  smaller 
kingdoms  and  principalities  ?  5.  Give  as  many  reasons 


I4th  century]  1 5th  century 
1301 — 1400  I  1401 — 1500 


i6th  century  i/th  century 


1501 — 1600 


1601 — 1700 


1 8          THE   HISTORY  OF   THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

as  you  can  explaining  why  England,  France,  and  Spain 
were  the  principal  European  countries  to  colonize  the 
New  World. 

II.  I.    Who    were    the    peasants    of   Europe?        2.    How 
did   the    European    peasants   in   the   fifteenth    and   sixteenth 
centuries  differ  from  the  American  farmer  of  to-day  ? 

III.  i.     How   did    the   nobles    differ   from    the    peasants? 
How  did    the    nobles    differ    among    themselves  ?        2.    How 
did     a    person    usually    become    a    member    of    the    nobility  ? 
3.    How   did  the  clergy  differ  from   the   peasants   and    from 
the  nobility  ?        4.    How  did  the  clergy  become  so   wealthy  ? 
5.    How   did   the    power   of  the  kings   in   the    fifteenth    and 
sixteenth  centuries   differ  from  the   power   of  the  rulers  to 
day  in   most   European   countries  ?        6.    How  did    England 
differ  from  most  of  the  other  European  countries  even  then 
in  its  form   of  government  ?      7.    In  what  good   ways  did  the 
European  kings  sometimes  use  their  power  ?        8.    What  new 
social  class  grew  up  in  Europe  at  about  the  time  of  the  dis 
covery  of  America  ?        9.     How  did  this  class  differ  from  the 
peasants  and  the  nobles  ?        10.    What  is  meant  by  the  word 
"  artisan  "  ? 

IV.  i.    Who  was   Marco   Polo  and  what  did  he  do  that 
his   name  should   be  so  long  remembered  ?        2.    Locate  on 
the  map  the  principal  cities  that  were  important  as  centers 
of  trade  and  commerce  just  before  the  discovery  of  America. 

Review.  What  are  the  disadvantages  of  living  in  a 
country  where  the  classes  are  rigidly  separated  as  they 
were  in  Europe  during  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  ? 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

i.  Draw  upon  the  blackboard  a  line  twenty  inches  long  like 
the  following  shorter  line.  Mark  upon  it  at  the  appropriate 
points  the  following  events : 

Present  2000 
1000  A.D.  time.     A.D. 


Magna  Carta,  1215 
Discovery  of  America,  1492 


EUROPEAN  BEGINNINGS  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY     19 

Landing  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  1620 
Declaration  of  Independence,  1776 
Monroe  Doctrine,  1823 
Assassination  of  Lincoln,  1865 
Spanish-American  War,  1898 

2.  Our  people  pride  themselves  on  the  fact  that  there  is  no  rigid 
separation  of  social  classes  in  this  country  as  there  has  been  and 
still  is  in  many  of  the  European  countries.     Many  of  our  greatest 
men  have  come  from  what  would  be  considered  in  Europe  one  of 
the  lower  social  classes.     Lincoln  was  one  of  these.     What  others 
can  you  name  ?     Why  is  it  well  for  a  country  to  prevent  classes 
from  becoming  rigidly  separated  ?     Can  you  think  of  any  way  in 
which  our  public  schools  prevent  this  ? 

3.  Look  up  additional  facts  about  Marco  Polo  and  be  ready  to 
give  to  the  class  a  clear  account  of  his  journeys  and  adventures. 

See  Nida's  "Dawn  of  American  History  in  Europe,"  ch.  xxi; 
Southworth's  "Builders  of  Our  Country,"  Book  I,  pp.  10-23. l 

1  The  references  given  for  the  "  Problems  "  in  this  and  the  following  chapters 
are  only  suggestive.  Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  consult  other  books  that 
they  may  find  in  the  school  library  or  the  public  library,  or  that  they  may  have 
at  home. 


CHAPTER   II 
THE  BOLD  EXPLORERS 

The  Europe  which  we  have  just  described  was,  in  the  main, 
an  unchanging  Europe.  The  nobles,  clergy,  artisans,  and 
peasants  were  content  to  go  about  their  daily  occupations 
just  as  their  predecessors  had  done  for  generations. 

I.   THE  NEED  OF  A  SEA-ROUTE  TO  ASIA:    THE  PIONEER 
EXPLORATIONS  or  THE  ITALIANS  AND  PORTUGUESE 

The  Italians.  —  Nevertheless,  there  were  signs  of  change  in 
Columbus'  day.  The  trade  with  the  East  continued  to 
thrive,  and  many  merchants  —  especially  the  Italian 
"middlemen"  -  grew  rich  out  of  the  traffic  in  spices,  silks, 
and  other  goods  brought  from  India  and  China.  The  mer 
chants  of  England,  France,  and  Spain,  seeing  the  Italian 
traders  reap  such  a  harvest  of  profits,  began  to  wonder 
whether  they  could  not  find  some  way  to  get  directly  into 
touch  with  Persia,  the  Indies,  and  China.  They  became 
very  much  excited  about  a  new  route  to  the  Indies 
when  in  1453  Constantinople,  which  hitherto  had  been  in 
Christian  hands,  was  captured  by  the  Turks.  After  that 
great  event  the  course  of  trade  through  the  eastern  Med 
iterranean,  though  by  no  means  blocked,  was  disturbed  and 
hampered. 

It  was  not  only  the  merchants  of  western  Europe  who 
were  aroused  abot$  paying  large  profits  to  middlemen. 
The'?  Italian  traders  were  equallv  unhappy  when  they 


THE   BOLD   EXPLORERS  21 

thought  of  the  huge  tribute  which  they  paid  to  the  Moham 
medan  business  men  at  the  seaports  of  the  eastern  Mediter 
ranean.  There  was  only  one  solution  of  the  problem  —  a 
new  route  to  the  Far  East  whence  came  the  goods  they  all 
sought. 

The  Italians  had  not  been  slow  to  realize  this.  Nearly 
two  hundred  years  before  Columbus  made  his  first  voyage 
across  the  Atlantic,  courageous  Italian  navigators  had 
sailed  out  through  the  straits  of  Gibraltar  on  direct  voy 
ages  to  London  and  Bruges.  Their  success  in  braving 
the  terrors  of  the  high  seas  encouraged  them,  and  in  a  little 
while  they  went  far  southward  along  the  coast  of  Africa 
in  search  of  a  way  around  to  the  Indies. 

The  Portuguese  Navigators.  Prince  Henry.  —  Since  these 
adventurers  often  stopped  at  Lisbon,  the  Portuguese  began 
to  take  interest  in  the  stirring  hunt  for  new  trade  routes. 
Indeed  one  may  almost  say  that  the  Portuguese  were 
the  pioneers  in  the  work  of  uncovering  the  un,known  con 
tinents  of  the  New  World  and  the  distant  lands  of  the  Far 
East.  Years  before  Columbus  was  born,  the  son  of  the 
King  of  Portugal,  Prince  Henry,  became  interested  in  ships 
and  sailors  and  maps,  and  he  did  so  much  to  encourage 
explorers  to  search  the  high  seas  that  he  won  for  himself  the 
name  of  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator. 

It  took  a  great  deal  of  money  to  build  ships,  and  he  sup 
plied  this  money  out  of  his  own  purse.  As  it  required  a 
knowledge  of  navigation  to  undertake  long  voyages  on  un 
charted  seas  far  from  the  coast,  Prince  Henry  set  up  a  school 
for  seamen,  where  books,  charts,  and  maps  were  collected 
and  where  expert  seamen  were  trained  to  wrestle  with  the 
dangers  of  the  deep,  and  to  sail  their  ships  according  to  the 
best  plans  of  the  time.  When  he  died  in  1460,  Prince  Henry 
left  behind  a  large  group  of  able  sailors  who  kept  up  the 
good  work  he  had  so  nobly  begun. 


22 


THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


Old  Superstitions  about  the  Sea.  —  One  of  the  most  difficult 
of  the  many  tasks  confronting  the  brave  spirits  who  set 
out  on  explorations  was  to  drive  out  of  the  minds  of  the 
common  sailors  all  sorts  of  absurd  notions  about  the  ter 
rors  of  the  ocean.  Even  the  wisest  of  navigators  knew  little 
about  the  high  seas,  and  the  ignorance  of  the  seamen  passes 


THE  KNOWN  WORLD  AT  ABOUT  THE  TIME  OF  PRINCE  HENRY,  THE  NAVIGATOR 

belief.  There  were  rumors  afloat  to  the  effect  that  the  dis 
tant  oceans  were  peopled  with  horrible  monsters  big  enough 
to  swallow  a  ship  at  one  gulp  ;  that  the  sea  to  the  southward 
was  boiling  hot ;  that  no  one  could  pass  through  the  scalding 
waters  alive  ;  and  that  the  west  coast  of  Africa  was  a  barren 
waste  where  sure  death  awaited  any  luckless  shipwrecked 
seamen. 

Although  the  more  learned  navigators  believed  that  the 
earth  was  round,  the  rank  and  file  stoutly  declared  that  it 


THE   BOLD   EXPLORERS  23 

was  flat,  and  that  whoever  ventured  far  out  at  sea  was  in 
danger  of  falling  off  the  edge  into  a  bottomless  black  abyss. 
It  was  only  by  gradually  extending  their  voyages  that  the 
sailors  found  these  ideas  to  be  utterly  false. 

Good  Work  of  the  Portuguese  Sailors.  —  Many  of  these 
first  voyages  were  undertaken  by  the  Portuguese.  By  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  they  had  discovered  the 
Canary  Islands,  Madeira,  and  the  Azores,  and  had  ventured 
down  along  the  coast  of  Africa  until  they  reached  the  head 
lands,  which  they  named  Cape  Verde  (the  Green  Cape). 

At  length  one  of  the  ablest  of  this  brave  school  of  Por 
tuguese  seamen,  Bartholomew  Diaz,  sailed  all  the  way 
down  the  west  coast  of  Africa  and,  in  1487,  rounded  the 
cape.  He  was  pleased  with  the  success  of  his  voyage,  and 
the  king  gave  to  the  southern  point  of  Africa  the  name  of 
the  "Cape  of  Good  Hope,"  the  name  it  still  bears.  When 
Diaz  returned  from  his  long  journey  of  thirteen  thousand 
miles  and  reported  that  he  had  seen  no  sea  monsters,  and 
that  the  boiling  ocean  story  was  a  myth,  other  sailors- grew 
bolder. 

II.    CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS 

A  Daring  Plan.  -  -  The  wonderful  exploits  of  the  Por 
tuguese  sailors  stirred  the  soul  of  an  Italian  seaman  from 
Genoa,  who  was  destined  to  win  everlasting  fame  —  Christo 
pher  Columbus.  As  a  lad  of  fourteen  years  he  had  begun  a 
wandering  life  at  sea,  and  in  the  course  of  his  adventures 
he  drifted  to  Portugal.  This  was  a  turning  point  in  his 
career.  No  doubt  he  learned  much  from  the  navigators 
of  Lisbon,  and  it  is  thought  that  he  joined  in  some  of  the 
voyages  down  the  African  coast.  At  all  events,  we  know 
that  in  1473  he  married  the  daughter  of  a  Portuguese  sailor 
who  had  gathered  a  store  of  maps  and  charts.  This 
precious  collection  later  fell  to  Columbus. 


24          THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

Columbus  also  had  a  copy  of  Marco  Polo's  book  of  travels, 
and  he  read  therein  not  merely  of  the  wonderful  riches  of 
the  East,  but  also  of  a  "  great  ocean  "  beyond  the  domin 
ions  of  the  Chinese  emperor.  By  much  deep  study  he 
figured  it  out  that  the  world  was  round,  not  flat  as  most 
people  thought,  and  that  this  "  great  ocean  "  was  a  part  of 
the  Atlantic.1  Columbus  then  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
if  he  sailed  some  four  thousand  miles  westward  —  a  voyage 
of  five  or  six  weeks  —  he  could  reach  Zipango,  or  Japan, 
which  lay  off  the  coast  of  China. 

Ferdinand  and  Isabella  Aid  Columbus.  —  Hard-headed 
business  men,  although  they  were  anxious  to  find  a  new 
route,  were  not  willing  to  risk  any  money  on  such  an  un 
certain  venture.  On  this  account,  Columbus  was  a  long 
time  in  securing  money  for  his  expedition.  He  appealed 
to  the  King  of  Portugal,  but  in  vain.  He  then  turned  to 
the  King  and  Queen  of  Spain,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  The 
Queen  became  deeply  interested  because  she  thought  she 
saw  an  opportunity  to  bring  the  heathen  of  the  East  into 
the  fold  of  the  Catholic  Church.  So  Columbus,  mainly 
through  her  aid,  was  able  to  secure  the  money,  men,  and 
ships  necessary  to  make  the  daring  experiment.  He  chose 
three  ships  small  enough  to  permit  him  to  skirt  along  the 
shores  and  explore  the  rivers  of  the  mysterious  lands  which 
he  expected  to  visit.  In  August,  1492,  all  was  ready  and 
Columbus  sailed  out  of  the  harbor  of  Palos  in  Spain  for 
the  fateful  voyage  on  the  "  Sea  of  Darkness/' 

Columbus  Crosses  the  Atlantic.  -  -  The  story  of  what  hap 
pened  is  well  known  —  how  Columbus'  men  grew  fright 
ened  as  they  sailed  on  day  after  day  across  the  trackless 
ocean ;  how  some  of  them  begged  him  to  turn  back  ;  and 
how  he  kept  his  faith  and  courage  when  every  one  else 

1  Of  course,  it  should  be  said  that  Greek  scholars  centuries  before  Columbus 
had  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  earth  was  round,  not  flat. 


THE   BOLD   EXPLORERS  25 

had  given  up  hope.  A  picture  of  the  contest  between 
despair  and  determination  to  win,  which  occurred  on  board 
the  captain's  ship,  is  drawn  by  an  American  poet,  Joaquin 
Miller,  in  these  lines  : 

"My  men  grow  mutinous  day  by  day; 
My  men  grow  ghastly  wan  and  weak." 
The  stout  mate  thought  of  home;    a  spray 
Of  salt  wave  washed  his  swarthy  cheek. 
"What  shall  I  say,  brave  Admiral,  say, 
If  we  sight  naught  but  seas  at  dawn  ?" 
"Why,  you  shall  say  at  break  of  day, 
'  Sail  on  !     Sail  on  !     Sail  on  !   and  on!" 


From  an  engraving  by  C.  M.  McRae 

COLUMBUS  IN  SIGHT  OF  LAND 

Columbus  Lands  at  San  Salvador  (October  12,  1492). — On 
they  sailed  until  at  length  their  weary  watching  was 
rewarded,  on  October  12,  with  the  sight  of  a  strange 
shore  —  one  of  the  Bahama  Islands.  Ferdinand  Columbus, 


26          THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

the  son  of  the  great  admiral,  in  the  Life  of  his  father  wrote 
of  their  landing : 

The  whole  company  kneeled  on  the  shore  and  kissed  the  ground 
for  joy,  returning  thanks  for  the  great  mercy  they  had  experienced 
during  the  long  voyage  through  seas  hitherto  unpassed  and  their 
now  happy  discovery  of  an  unknown  land. 

Columbus  named  the  island  San  Salvador  (Holy  Savior) 
and  declared  it  to  be  territory  of  the  King  of  Spain.  Then 
for  several  weeks  he  sailed  about  among  the  islands  of  that 
region,  discovering,  among  others,  Haiti  and  Cuba;  but  he 
returned  home  without  rinding  the  treasures  of  gold  and 
silver  and  precious  stones  or  the  fabled  cities  of  the  East  for 
which  he  was  searching.  A  second  voyage  was  equally  dis 
appointing. 

III.   DA  GAMA,  VESPUCCI,  BALBOA,  AND  MAGELLAN 

Vasco  da  Gama  Reaches  India  by  Sea  (1497).  --  Bit 
terness  was  added  to  Columbus'  cup  when  a  Portuguese 
sailor,  Vasco  da  Gama,  in  1497  sailed  directly  around  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  crossed  the  Indian  Ocean  to  Calicut 
(whence  the  term  "  calico  ")  on  the  west  coast  of  India,  and 
brought  back  home  a  shipload  of  the  spices,  silks,  and  other 
goods  which  were  so  much  desired  in  Europe.  When  the 
voyagers  returned,  in  1499,  the  King  of  Portugal  wrote 
exultantly  to  the  king  and  queen  of  Spain,  boasting  of  Da 
Gama's  triumph. 

The  news  of  this  exploit,  that  the  longed-for  water  route 
to  India  was  opened  at  last,  stirred  Spain  more  than  ever. 
Columbus  made  two  more  voyages  across  the  Atlantic 
searching  for  the  golden  Indies,  but  without  results.  He 
returned  home,  broken  and  heartsick,  and  in  1506  he  died 
in  poverty,  not  knowing  that  he  had  discovered  a  new  world. 

Amerigo  Vespucci  Writes  of  the  New  World.  —  Un 
daunted  by  the  failure  of  Columbus  to  find  a  direct  route  to 


THE   BOLD   EXPLORERS 


the  East,  the  Spaniards  continued  the  search.  They  em 
ployed  in  this  work  an  Italian  from  Florence,  Amerigo  Ves 
pucci.  He  sailed  along  the  eastern  shores  of  what  is  now 
South  America,  from  the  shoulder  half-way  to  the  southern 
tip.  After  his  return  from  this  expedition  (1504)  Amerigo 
wrote  to  friends  in  Italy :  "  We  have  found  what  may 


THE  VOYAGES  OF  COLUMBUS 

be  called  a  new  world."  Navigators  then  came  to  the  con 
clusion  that  Columbus  had  not  reached  Asia  at  all,  but  the 
coasts  of  a  wide  continent  which  barred  the  way  to  India. 
It  was  in  honor  of  this  Italian  sailor  in  the  employ  of  the 
King  of  Spain  that  the  name  "  America  "  was  given  to 
the  new  lands. 

Balboa  Discovers  the  Pacific.  -  -  The  Spanish  soon 
began  to  open  up  the  continent.  The  coast  of  the 
central  region  was  explored  as  early  as  1508  by  Pinzon, 
who  had  been  with  Columbus  on  the  first  voyage.  Five 
years  later,  in  1513,  Balboa  pushed  through  the  swamps 
and  jungles  of  the  Isthmus,  climbed  the  mountains  to  the 


28  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

westward,  and,  on  September  25,  beheld  the  gleaming  waters 
of  the  Pacific. 

Magellan's  Ships  Circumnavigate  the  Globe  (1519- 
1522). — Two  lines  of  enterprise  now  began.  Some  adven 
turers  sought  a  way  around  the  continent  to  the  Indies, 
and  others  explored  the  new  continent  itself.  In  the 
former  group  the  Portuguese  sailor,  Magellan,  takes  highest 
rank,  for  it  was  he  who  first  sailed  directly  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean  by  crossing  the  Atlantic. 

In  1519  this  energetic  captain,  in  the  service  of  the  king 
of  Spain,  set  out  for  the  New  World.  He  skirted  the  coast 
of  South  America,  pushed  through  the  straits  at  the  southern 
end  which  now  bear  his  name,  and  then  spread  his  sails 
on  the  broad  Pacific,  little  dreaming  what  vast  stretches  of 
water  lay  between  America  and  the  Indies.  He  sailed 
bravely  on,  week  after  week,  outrivaling  the  daring  and 
endurance  of  Columbus  on  his  first  voyage.  After  a  desperate 
struggle  with  starvation  and  thirst  Magellan  reached  the 
islands  now  known  as  the  Philippines,  where  he  was  killed 
in  a  fight  with  the  natives. 

Magellan's  men  sailed  from  there  in  the  good  ship 
Victoria,  crossed  the  Indian  Ocean,  rounded  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  on  September  6,  1522,  rode  into  the  harbor 
at  Lisbon.  Thus,  in  the  most  memorable  voyage  in  the 
annals  of  the  sea,  the  globe  was  encircled. 

IV.  THE  SPANISH  CONQUESTS;    FURTHER  SPANISH 
EXPLORATIONS 

Mexico.  Its  Conquest  by  Cortes.  —  About  the  time  of 
Magellan's  voyage,  Cortes,  a  Spanish  soldier,  with  a  small 
band  of  men,  discovered  the  empire  of  Mexico.  The  Mexi 
can  natives  tilled  the  fields  and  raised  bountiful  crops  ;  they 
had  many  fine  highways,  along  which  a  large  domestic  trade 
flowed  ;  they  had  cities  ;  they  had  made  important  begin- 


THE   BOLD  EXPLORERS 


29 


nings  in  painting  pictures  and  writing  books  ;  and  the  king  and 
the  nobles  who  ruled  over  the  people  had  amassed  great  quan 
tities  of  gold  and  silver  and  precious  stones.  Here  was  booty 
for  the  Spaniards.  They  fell  upon  the  Mexicans  with  fire  and 
sword,  captured  their  capital,  Mexico  City,  in  1521,  and  in 
a  little  while  were  in  possession  of  a  mighty  domain,  thickly 
settled,  and  rich  in  the  precious  minerals. 

Soon  Christian  missionaries  from  Spain  went  over  to 
Mexico  and  converted  the  people  to  the  Catholic  faith. 
Monasteries  or  missions  were  built  in  all  parts  of  the  coun- 


-----  ^" 


THE  PALACE  OF  CORTES  AT  CUERNAVACA,  MEXICO 

try;  a  Spanish  government  was  set  up;  and  thus  a  "New 
Spain,"  as  it  was  called,  was  established  —  a  Spain  very 
much  like  the  old  in  religion,  government,  and  the  customs 
of  the  people. 

The  strange  empire  thus  brought  under  the  rule  of  Spain 
is  described  in  many  entertaining  letters  written  by  the 
conqueror,  Cortes,  to  his  sovereign  at  home.  One  of  these 
he  devoted  entirely  to  an  account  of  the  marvelous  city  of 
Mexico  and  the  court  life  of  the  Mexican  sovereign,  Monte- 
zuma.  In  this  dispatch  he  tells  of  the  public  squares  and 
market  places,  where  more  than  sixty  thousand  merchants 
were  busy  buying  and  selling  jewels  of  gold  and  silver,  lead, 


30          THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

brass,  copper,  tin,  timber,  precious  stones,  rabbits,  herbs, 
medicines,  foodstuffs  of  all  kinds,  honey,  sugar,  cotton 
thread,  dyes,  paints,  and  earthenware.  He  tells  of  temples 
and  chapels  where  dwelt  the  priests  of  the  heathen  faith, 
of  the  palaces  inhabited  by  the  rich  lords,  of  the  wonderful 
gardens  and  balconies  supported  by  marble  columns,  of 
the  museums  filled  with  human  freaks,  and  of  the  bird  houses 
where  the  emperor's  servants  had  collected  specimens  of 
all  the  known  species  of  the  empire. 

Peru.  Its  Conquest  by  Pizarro.  --  While  the  Spaniards 
were  busy  conquering  Mexico,  they  heard  rumors  of  another 
great  empire  to  the  southward  in  Peru ;  and  Pizarro,  a 
cruel  soldier,  set  out  with  fewer  than  two  hundred  men  to 
find  it.  After  a  long  and  perilous  journey,  they  came  upon 
a  country  superior  in  many  ways  to  Mexico,  and  especially 
rich  in  the  booty  which  they  were  seeking.  They  speedily 
overcame  the  natives  in  battle  and  looted  the  temples, 
palaces,  and  even  the  tombs  of  the  dead,  carrying  away  all 
the  precious  metals  and  jewels  they  could  find.  It  is  es 
timated  that  Cortes  and  Pizarro  wrung  at  least  $7,000,000 
from  the  Mexicans  and  Peruvians  as  "  gifts,"  and  took  as 
much  more  by  force. 

Explorations  to  the  Northward.  De  Leon  and  De  Soto.  — 
The  stories  of  fabulous  riches  won  by  the  conquest  of  Mexico 
and  Peru  set  all  the  other  Spanish  adventurers  on  fire  with 
the  hope  of  still  greater  adventures.  So  they  turned  to  the 
northward,  undismayed  by  a  fruitless  journey  which  De 
Leon  had  made  into  the  Florida  country  as  early  as  1513. 
From  Cuba,  De  Soto,  one  of  Pizarro's  old  lieutenants,  went 
forth  with  a  band  of  horsemen  and  soldiers,  all  armed  to 
the  teeth  and  dressed  in  gorgeous  colors,  ready  to  overawe 
and  conquer  any  emperors  and  potentates  whom  they  might 
chance  to  meet.  With  banners  flying  they  landed  on  the 
coast  of  Florida  in  1539  looking  for  worlds  to  conquer. 


THE   BOLD   EXPLORERS  31 

How  bitter  was  their  disappointment!     Instead  of  Mexico 
cities  they  found  miserable  Indian  villages. 

But  having  set  out  with  grand  expectations  De  Soto 
would  not  turn  back.  For  four  long  years  he  dragged  his 
dwindling  band  inland  through  jungles,  forests,  and  swamps, 
hoping  each  day  that  the  next  would  reveal  great  treasures. 
In  1541  he  reached  the  turbulent  waters  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  yet  he  pressed  on  until  death  broke  his  will  and  stilled 


:jl:L^fr-^»'^^^¥¥^ 


THE  ZUNI  TERRACE 

In  place  of  cities  and  treasure,  such  as  Cortes  and  Pizarro  had  found,  Coronado 
discovered  only  wretched  Indian  villages. 

his  stout  heart.  His  followers,  in  the  night,  dropped  his 
body  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  mighty  river  which  he  had 
discovered,  hoping  thus  to  conceal  his  death  from  the  In 
dians,  who  had  been  told  that  Christians  were  immortal. 

The  remnants  of  De  Soto's  band,  freed  from  the  com 
mand  of  their  stern  captain,  found  their  way  as  best  they 
could  back  to  Spanish  settlements. 

Coronado.  --  While  De  Soto  was  out  on  this  luckless  jour 
ney,  another  Spanish  adventurer,  Coronado,  was  exploring 
from  Mexico  what  is  now  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
United  States. 


32  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

In  place  of  cities  and  treasure,  such  as  Cortes  and  Pizarro 
had  found,  he,  too,  discovered  only  wretched  Indian  huts 
and  villages.  These  were  not  the  exploits  which  the  Spanish 
soldiers  were  seeking,  but  they  gave  to  the  King  of  Spain 
a  claim  to  vast  territories. 


V.   THE  FRENCH  AND  THE  ENGLISH  EXPLORATIONS;  CON 
FLICT  BETWEEN  ENGLAND  AND  SPAIN 

French  Explorations.  Ferrazano.  —  News  of  the  return 
ing  Spanish  galleons  bringing  tons  of  gold  and  silver  from 
the  New  World  was  not  long  in  reaching  the  ears  of  the 
King  of  France.  In  fact,  one  of  his  sea  captains,  Verrazano, 
an  Italian,  had  been  lucky  enough  to  seize  two  of  the  treas 
ure  ships  which  Cortes  sent  home  from  Mexico.  The  French 
king,  stirred  by  wonderful  tales  from  New  Spain,  fitted  out,  in 
1524,  an  expedition  for  Verrazano,  who  explored  the  eastern 
coast  of  North  America  and  attempted  to  find  a  northwest 
passage  to  the  East  Indies.  This  expedition  gave  France 
a  claim  to  the  northern  continent. 

Cartier  and  Champlain.  —  A  few  years  afterward  Jacques 
Cartier  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and  took  posses 
sion  of  its  banks  in  the  name  of  the  French  king.  For  a 
long  time,  however,  French  sovereigns  were  too  busy  with 
wars  on  the  continent  and  religious  disputes  at  home  to  em 
bark  on  regular  colonization  in  America.  It  was  not  until 
1604  that  the  French  planted  their  first  permanent  colony 
at  Port  Royal  in  Acadia.  Four  years  later  the  great  ex 
plorer  Champlain  established  the  post  of  Quebec. 

Although  the  French,  by  their  voyages  of  discovery, 
really  laid  the  foundations  of  a  New  France  in  America, 
that  was  far  from  their  intention  at  first.  They,  too,  sought 
a  route  to  India  or  another  Peru  to  conquer ;  not  a  fertile 
land,  where  French  peasants  could  have  fields  to  till. 


THE   BOLD   EXPLORERS  33 

When  the  French  explorers  found  their  way  to  the  Far 
East  blocked,  they  went  overland  westward  to  the  regions 
around  the  Great  Lakes,  hoping  that  somewhere  in  that 
country  might  be  discovered  the  cities  and  markets  of 
China.  Their  hopes  were  not  realized,  but  as  we  shall  see 
they  left  their  mark  in  the  wilderness  which  they  traversed. 

English  Explorations.  John  Cabot  (1497-8) .  —  England  was 
the  last  of  the  great  nations  of  western  Europe  to  under 
take  regular  voyages  of  exploration  to  the  New  World.  It 
is  true  that  King  Henry  VII  sent  out  from  Bristol  John 
Cabot,  an  Italian  by  birth,  with  orders  to  find  a  way  west 
ward  to  Zipango,  or  Japan,  whence  came  much  of  the 
goods  highly  prized  by  Englishmen ;  but  nothing  impor 
tant  came  of  the  trip.  Cabot  did  not  discover  the  long- 
coveted  passage  to  the  East.  He  found,  instead,  the  barren 
coast  of  Labrador,  where,  in  1497,  he  planted  the  English 
flag  and  thus  gave  England  a  shadow  of  a  claim  to  the 
whole  North  American  continent.  Henry  VII  seems  to 
have  given  Cabot  £10  for  his  pains.  The  next  year  Cabot 
sailed  again  and  mysteriously  disappeared.  Henry  VIII, 
the  son  of  Henry  VII,  took  little  or  no  interest  in  explo 
ration  and  discovery. 

Francis  Drake.  —  During  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII's 
daughter,  the  famous  Queen  Elizabeth,  English  adventure 
was  renewed.  By  that  time  there  had  grown  up  in  Eng 
land  a  company  of  daring  sea  captains,  such  as  Drake, 
Raleigh,  Frobisher,  and  Gilbert,  whose  names  became  house 
hold  words  wherever  the  English  language  was  spoken. 
Under  the  leadership  of  these  men  the  English  navy  grew, 
until  at  last  England  was  prepared  to  challenge  the  rich  and 
powerful  kingdom  of  Spain,  and  to  strike  at  her  source  of 
wealth  —  the  Americas. 

The  signal  for  the  opening  of  the  conflict  was  given  in 
1577  as  Francis  Drake  spread  his  sails  in  Plymouth  for 


34 


THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


a  voyage  around  the  world  — "  to  singe  the  Spaniard's 
beard."  Though  his  Queen  was  at  peace  with  the  Spanish 
sovereign,  Drake  sailed  down  the  eastern  coast  of  South 
America  and  up  the  western  coast,  looting  and  burning  the 
trading  posts  along  the  way,  overhauling  galleons,  and  fill 
ing  his  own  ships  with  bars  of  gold  and  silver.  Far  north  he 
went  along  the  Pacific  shores  until  his  sails  were  sheathed 
in  ice.  Then  he  turned  back,  refitted  his  vessels  at  a 


180°  160°   140°   120"  100°   80".,,,  tOO°   40"   2,0°    0 

ARCTIC       ^Aj£:r  SCREEN™ 

OCEAN 


40°   00°    80°   100°   120°   140"   100°  180' 

ARCTIC      OCEAN 


A    N    T    A    R 


/Q  Scale  of  Miles 

C        T       I        C  OCEAN  -    along  the  Equate: 


180°     160°      140°     120°  Tli|0°      80°       tjO°       40° 


20°        40°       60°        80°      100°      120°      140°      160°     180° 


GREAT  VOYAGES,  1492  TO  1580 

point  near  the  site  of  San  Francisco,  —  little  dreaming  that 
a  republic  of  English-speaking  people  would  some  day 
stretch  to  the  sands  before  him,  —  and  at  last  he  set  out 
toward  the  setting  sun.  Unlike  poor  Magellan,  he  was  for 
tunate  enough  to  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  com 
mand  of  his  ships,  and  in  November  of  the  year  1580 
rode  safely  into  English  waters.  Elizabeth  apologized  to 
the  King  of  Spain  for  Drake's  rudeness ;  then  knighted  her 
faithful  servant. 


THE   BOLD   EXPLORERS  35 

The  Defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada.  —  As  the  news  of 
the  deeds  of  Drake  and  his  countrymen  slowly  filtered  home 
to  Spain,  the  wrath  of  the  king  waxed  high.  There  seemed 
to  be  no  end  to  the  story  of  ships  sunk,  treasure  carried 
off,  towns  sacked,  and  settlements  destroyed.  Proud  of 
his  empire,  on  which  the  sun  never  set,  and  zealous  in 
the  support  of  the  Catholic  faith,  the  Spanish  king  at  last 
determined  to  bear  no  longer  the  insults  offered  by  English 
men  —  and  Protestants.  The  challenge  had  been  made 
on  the  sea,  and  on  the  sea  he  accepted  it. 

Fitting  up  a  huge  Armada,  —  the  mightiest  fleet  of  battle 
ships  that  had  ever  swept  the  ocean,  —  the  Spaniards  rode 
forth  to  shatter  the  growing  power  of  England.  Elizabeth's 
sailors  were  ready.  With  a  swiftness  that  dazed  experienced 
Spanish  captains,  they  fell  upon  the  "  Invincible  Armada" 
and  battered  it  to  pieces.  And,  as  if  to  add  to  English  luck, 
a  storm  came  down  and  blasted  the  ships  which  escaped 
the  fire  of  English  guns.  This  was  more  than  a  "great 
victory."  It  made  way  for  the  British  Empire.  Hence 
forth  England  could  plant  settlements  beyond  the  seas, 
and  defend  them  against  all  comers.  Then  it  was  that 
far-sighted  men,  like  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  could  safely  dream 
of  a  "  New  England,"  to  rise  in  the  wildernesses  of  North 
America. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.  Why  was  a  sea-route  to  Asia  so  eagerly  desired  by  the 
people  of  western  Europe  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  fifteenth 
century  ?  2.  Who  was  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator,  and  why 
was  he  so  called  ?  Why  is  his  name  remembered  ?  3.  Locate 
the  Madeira  Islands;  the  Canary  Islands;  the  Azores.  When 
and  by  whom  were  these  islands  discovered  ?  4.  Why  did 
sailors  hesitate  to  go  southward  along  the  coast  of  Africa  in  the 
hope  of  finding  a  route  to  India  ?  5.  Where  is  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  ?  How  did  it  get  its  name  ? 


36  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

II.  I.    How  did  Columbus  plan  to  reach  the  Indies  by  sea  ? 
2.    What  difficulties  did  he  have  in  raising  money  for  his  first  voy 
age  ?     How  did  he  finally  succeed  ?     3.    How  many  voyages  did 
he  make  ?     4.      Describe  the  difficulties  of  his  first  voyage.     How 
does  it  happen  that  the  New  World  does  not  bear  the  name  of 
Columbus  ? 

III.  i.   Why  was  the  voyage  of  Vasco  da  Gama  so  important  ? 
2.     What  event  should  be  remembered  in  connection  with  the 
name  of  Balboa  ?        3.    Magellan's  voyage  is  referred   to   in   the 
text  as  "the  most   memorable  voyage  in  the  annals  of  the  sea." 
Give  as  many  reasons  as  you  can  in  support  of  this  statement. 

-  IV.  i.  In  what  important  way  did  the  work  of  Cortes  and 
Pizarro  differ  from  that  of  Columbus,  Da  Gama,  and  Magellan  ? 
2.  Why  did  the  conquest  of  Mexico  and  Peru  encourage  the 
Spaniards  to  make  further  explorations  in  America?  3.  With 
the  discovery  and  exploration  of  what  regions  are  the  following 
names  connected  :  De  Leon,  De  Soto,  Coronado  ?  4.  Although 
all  of  these  men  were  disappointed  because  they  did  not  discover 
what  they  had  hoped  to  find,  their  names  are  remembered  in 
American  history.  Why  ? 

V.  i.  What  explorers  did  France  send  out?  What  were  the 
results  of  their  work  ?  2.  What  did  the  King  of  England  hope 
that  John  Cabot  might  discover  ?  What  did  Cabot  actually  find  ? 
Why  were  his  discoveries  of  importance  to  England  ?  3.  How 
long  a  time  elapsed  between  the  explorations  of  Cabot  and  those 
of  Drake  ?  What  were  the  Spanish  doing  in  the  way  of  exploring 
and  conquering  the  Americas  during  this  period  ?  4.  In  what  way 
was  Drake's  work  a  breach  of  good  faith  on  the  part  of  England 
toward  Spain  ?  What  was  the  effect  in  Spain  ?  How  did  the  King 
of  Spain  hope  to  punish  England,  and  what  were  the  results  of  his 
efforts  ? 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Carrying    goods     by    water,     even     to-day,     is     generally 
cheaper  than  transportation  by  land.     Why  was  land  transporta 
tion  much  more  inconvenient  and  costly  in  the  time  of  Columbus  ? 

2.  Make  a  list  of  the  most  important  advances  in  the  art  of 
navigation    since   the   time   of  Columbus,    especially   regarding : 
(a)  means  of  finding  latitude  and  longitude;     (b)  means  of  avoid 
ing   dangerous    coasts    and    finding   safe   channels    and    harbors; 


THE   BOLD   EXPLORERS  37 

(c)  means  of  propelling  ships ;  (d)  means  of  steering  ships : 
(<?)  means  of  making  ships  secure  against  severe  storms. 

Many  of  the  difficulties  of  early  navigation  are  described  in  ch. 
xxii  of  Nida's  "Dawn  of  American  History  in  Europe." 

3.  Columbus,  Vespucci,  and  John  Cabot  were  all  Italians.  Why 
is  it  probable  that  Italy  had  more  and  better  sailors  at  this  time 
than  Spain,  Portugal,  and  England  ? 

•4.  In  addition  to  the  facts  given  in  the  text,  give  a  further  ac 
count  of  Columbus'  work,  particularly  regarding :  (a)  his  dif 
ficulties  in  getting  men  and  ships;  (b)  the  dangers  and  difficulties 
of  his  first  voyage  and  how  he  overcame  them ;  (c)  the  results  of 
his  later  voyages. 

See  Nida's  "Dawn  of  American  History  in  Europe,"  ch.  xxiii ; 
McMurry's  "Pioneers  on  Land  and  Sea,"  ch.  vii;  Southworth's 
"  Builders  of  Our  Country,"  Book  I,  pp.  24—36 ;  Tappan's 
"American  Hero  Stories,"  pp.  1-13 ;  Stapley's  "  Christopher 
Columbus,"  chs.  v— x,  xiii— xix. 

5.  Find    out    additional    facts    concerning   Magellan :      (a)  his 
ships  and  crews;     (b)  the  details  of  the  long  voyage;     (c)  where 
and  how  Magellan  met  his  death. 

See  McMurry's  "Pioneers  on  Land  and  Sea,"  ch.  viii ;  Tappan's 
"American  Hero  Stories,"  pp.  14-24;  Nida's  "Dawn  of  American 
History  in  Europe,"  pp.  301-305. 

6.  Tell  how  the  Spaniards  treated  the  natives  of  Mexico  and 
Peru. 

See  McMurry's  "Pioneers  on  Land  and  Sea,"  ch.  ix;  South- 
worth's  "  Builders  of  Our  Nation,"  Book  I,  pp.  43-50 ;  Hart's 
"Colonial  Children,"  pp.  12-16;  Pratt's  "Cortes  and  Montezuma." 

7.  The  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada  is  regarded  as  one  of  the 
most  important  events  in  European  history.     Give  as  many  reasons 
as  you  can  find  for  its  importance.  • 

See  Nida's  "Dawn  of  American  History  in  Europe,"  ch.  xxviii; 
Eggleston's  "Our  First  Century,"  pp.  8-9;  Tappan's  "England's 
Story,"  pp.  201-204. 


CHAPTER  III 
FOUNDING   THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES    IN   AMERICA 

It  was  an  easy  matter  to  enroll  a  band  of  soldiers  for 
an  expedition  to  the  New  World,  which  promised  booty 
in  gold  and  silver  and  precious  stones  for  all  who  took  the 
risk.  The  nobles,  especially  of  Spain  and  France,  almost 
always  had  about  them  a  troop  of  fighting  men,  ready  for 
any  exploit  that  offered  excitement  and  wealth.  It  was 
an  altogether  different  matter  to  find  people  who  were  will 
ing  to  go  out  and  make  their  homes  in  the  wilderness. 
No  hope  of  riches  lured  them.  No  thought  of  joyful  return 
to  admiring  friends  and  relatives  gave  them  heart  for  brav 
ing  the  perils.  When  the  pioneer  and  his  family  turned 
their  faces  toward  the  setting  sun,  they  knew  that  the  way 
was  long,  and  the  reward  at  the  journey's  end,  at  best, 
scanty  and  uncertain.  They  were  not  to  discover  wonder 
ful  cities,  but  to  build  them  themselves. 

In  such  enterprises  soldiers  were  of  little  help.  They 
were,  of  course,  indispensable  in  defending  the  emigrants 
against  enemies,  but  they  did  not  relish  hard  work  in  forests 
and  fields.  It  takes  industrious  workingmen  and  women 
to  found  settlements,  build  homes,  rear  children,  and  create 
a  nation. 

I.   DIFFICULTIES  AND  DANGERS  OF  SETTLEMENT 

The  Dangers  of  the  Voyage.  --There  were  special  reasons 
why  it  was  difficult  to  find  men  and  women  willing  to  settle 
in  North  America.  The  perils  of  the  deep  were  great  enough 

38 


FOUNDING  THE   ENGLISH  COLONIES   IN  AMERICA      39 

to  try  the  bravest.  Under  favorable  conditions  the  voyage 
required  from  four  to  eight  weeks.  Often  storms  drove 
them  far  out  of  their  course,  and  their  supplies  of  food  and 
water  were  exhausted.  The  ships  were  small  and  built  for 
coastwise  trade  rather  than  for  long  ocean  voyages.  Pirates 


A  stockade  such  as  the  early  settlers  built   to  protect  themselves  from  the  attacks  of 

the  Indians. 

roved  the  sea,  robbing  and  sinking  mercilessly  the  helpless 
merchant  and  passenger  ships. 

The  Indians. — To  these  perils  were  added  the  dangers  of 
attacks  by  Indians  lurking  in  the  forests  or  by  the  water's 
edge,  ready  to  torture,  scalp,  and  kill. 

It  is  just  to  say  that  at  first  the  natives  received  the  white 
men  in  a  friendly  manner  and  with  childish  glee  traded 
shells,  ornaments,  and  furs  for  beads,  mirrors,  and  other 
trinkets.  But  the  whites  often  paid  back  their  kindnesses 
in  cruel  deeds.  By  the  time  when  regular  settlement  began, 


40  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

the  Indians  in  nearly  every  section  had  learned  to  fear  and 
distrust  the  newcomers. 

In  many  places  the  English  were  able  to  buy  at  low 
prices  large  tracts  of  land  from  the  Indians,  and  to  live  for 
a  time  on  good  terms  with  them ;  but  there  was  a  limit  to 
the  amount  of  land  which  the  Indians  were  willing  to  sell. 
They  had  to  have  large  ranges  for  hunting  and  fishing.  For 
every  acre  that  the  white  man  required  for  a  livelihood,  the 
Indian  required  a  thousand.  One  thing,  therefore,  was  clear. 
The  Indians  could  not  go  on  living  their  wild,  free  life,  if 
English  settlers  were  to  fill  up  the  country.  Two  alterna 
tives  lay  before  the  Indian.  He  could  change  his  nature 
and  his  habits,  and  turn  to  labor  in  the  fields  like  the  white 
man  ;  or  he  could  fight  to  keep  his  hunting  grounds. 

The  Indians,  of  course,  could  have  labored  for  the  white 
men,  but  for  the  proud  Indians  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard 
that  was  quite  out  of  the  question.  The  Spaniards  made 
serfs  of  many  natives  in  Mexico  and  the  Southwest,  and 
the  English  sought  to  follow  their  example.  Their  experi 
ments  in  Indian  serfdom  failed. 

The  true  North  American  Indian  was  restive  and  sullen 
when  forced  to  labor  in  mines  and  fields.  He  did  not  like 
steady  habits.  He  was  used  to  having  his  wife  or  "  squaw  " 
do  all  the  hard  drudgery  of  raising  corn  and  tobacco  and 
making  utensils,  as  well  as  the  ordinary  housework.  Ac 
customed  to  a  wild  life  in  the  forests  in  search  of  game,  he 
did  not  propose  to  do  "  woman's  work  "  for  anybody.  A 
few  tribes,  such  as  the  Senecas  of  the  Iroquois  group,  lived 
in  a  somewhat  settled  manner  in  "  round  houses  "  or  "  long 
houses  "  built  of  light  timbers  and  bark  or  clay,  but  most 
of  them  preferred  the  wigwam  of  birch  bark  and  skins  which 
was  easily  portable. 

There  was  no  way  of  inducing  the  Indian  to  adopt  the 
white  man's  way  of  living.  As  the  country  filled  up  with 


FOUNDING  THE   ENGLISH   COLONIES   IN  AMERICA      41 

settlers  who  steadily  encroached  on  the  hunting  grounds 
it  became  evident  that  armed  conflicts  could  not  be  avoided. 
The  English  who  went  out  to  the  New  World,  therefore, 
knew  that  the  perils  of  warfare  awaited  them. 

II.     CONDITIONS  IN  EUROPE  WHICH  LED  TO  THE 
COLONIZATION  OF  AMERICA 

In  view  of  the  hostility  of  the  Indians,  and  all  the  dangers 
that  beset  the  pioneers  in  the  New  World,  we  may  indeed 
wonder  where  were  the  men  and  women  to  be  found  ready 
to  leave  their  homes  in  the  Old  World  for  the  hazards  of  the 
New.  The  answer  is  to  be  found  in  the  new  conditions  that 
had  arisen  in  Europe. 

Between  Columbus'  day  and  the  date  of  the  first  Eng 
lish  settlement  in  America  marvelous  changes  had  taken 
place  in  all  the  countries  of  western  Europe,  and  in  England 
as  well.  The  old  order  of  things  had  begun  to  break  up, 
and  peasants  and  merchants  became  more  and  more  willing 
to  leave  their  old  ways  for  new,  and  to  risk  the  perils  of  life 
in  the  wilderness.  The  history  of  these  important  changes 
is  told  under  the  following  heads:  (i)  changes  in  religion, 
(2)  increased  hardships  of  the  peasants,  (3)  changes  due  to 
the  development  of  the  art  of  printing,  and  (4)  the  influence 
of  gold  from  the  Spanish  possessions  in  America. 

i.  Religious  Changes.  The  Protestant  Reformation.  —  First 
among  these  great  changes  was  the  revolt  against  the 
Catholic  Church  in  northern  Europe.  About  1521,  fifteen 
years  after  the  death  of  Columbus,  a  dispute  began  which 
ended  in  the  complete  separation  of  large  portions  of 
Germany,  and  all  of  Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden,  Holland, 
and  England  from  the  Catholic  fold.  France  and  Spain 
remained  loyal  to  the  old  Church,  but  not  until  "  Protest 
ant  "  movements  had  made  them  a  great  deal  of  trouble 
and  had  been  put  down  with  heavy  loss  of  life. 


42  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

In  the  beginning,  the  dispute  was,  in  the  main,  taken  up 
by  kings  and  princes  who  "  protested  "  against  the  suprem 
acy  of  the  Pope;  hence  the  term  "  Protestants."  When  a 
prince  decided  to  abandon  his  ancient  faith  and  turn  Prot 
estant,  he  usually  decided  for  his  subjects  as  well  as  for 
himself;  and  if  some  of  his  people  resisted  the  change  in  their 
faith,  they  were  liable  to  be  severely  punished  or  driven 
out  of  the  country. 

As  time  went  on,  the  common  people  began  to  assert 
what  princes  had  asserted  ;  namely,  that  they  had  a  right  to 
decide  for  themselves  what  religious  opinions  they  would 
hold. 

Protestantism  in  England:  the  "  Established  "  Church.  - 
In  England,  King  Henry  VIII  (1509-47)  broke  with  the 
Pope,  declared  the  independence  of  the  English  Church, 
and  placed  himself  at  its  head.  A  few  years  after  Henry's 
death,  important  changes  were  made  by  law  in  the  services 
and  in  Christian  doctrines  as  to  religious  life  and  faith. 
The  church  thus  organized  under  Acts  of  Parliament  was 
known  as  the  Church  of  England  or  the  Established  Church. 

The  Puritans.  —  In  the  reign  of  Henry's  daughter,  Eliza 
beth,  some  of  her  subjects  became  dissatisfied  with  the 
Established  Church.  They  began  to  demand  its  "  purifica 
tion  "  by  abolishing  some  of  the  ceremonies  which  had  been 
taken  from  the  Catholic  Church,  and  by  the  removal  of 
images  from  the  places  of  worship.  These  "  purifiers,"  or 
Puritans,  as  they  were  called,  did  not  propose  to  overthrow 
the  Established  Church  altogether;  they  believed  in  keep 
ing  the  authority  of  the  bishops  and  priests  over  the  lay 
men  ;  but  they  wanted  to  reform  the  Church  in  accordance 
with  their  notions  of  what  was  proper. 

The  Separatists. --The  Puritans  had  hardly  begun  to 
make  trouble  for  the  government  before  there  appeared 
another  group  of  religious  reformers  who  were  not  content 


FOUNDING  THE   ENGLISH   COLONIES   IN  AMERICA      43 

with  the  mere  purification  of  the  State  Church,  who  even 
denied  its  authority  altogether,  and  asserted  the  right  of  any 
congregation  to  adopt  its  own  kind  of  worship  and  choose 
its  own  preacher  and  officers.  These  radicals  were  called 
"  Dissenters  "  or  "  Separatists." 

Divisions  of  the  Dissenters :  Presbyterians.,  Baptists, 
Quakers. — The  Dissenters  were  themselves  soon  divided 
into  many  sects.  Among  these  were  the  Presbyterians,  fol 
lowers  of  John  Calvin,  who  established  his  church  at  Gen 
eva  about  1540.  The  Presbyterians  were  particularly 
strong  in  Scotland,  and  they  were  also  very  influential 
in  England. 

Another  sect,  far  more  numerous  than  the  Presbyterians, 
was  that  of  the  Baptists.  John  Bunyan,  the  author  of 
"  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  was  of  this  faith.  He  wrote  his 
immortal  book  while  in  prison  for  his  religious  views. 

Shortly  after  the  Baptists  began  to  spread  their  faith  in 
England,  a  third  sect,  popularly  known  as  "  Quakers," 
arose  as  a  result  of  the  teachings  of  George  Fox,  who  began 
to  proclaim  his  doctrines  about  1647.  The  members  of 
this  new  body  were  known  as  the  "  Friends,"  on  account  of 
their  kindly  care  of  one  another.  The  Friends  opposed 
war  and  violence,  and  rejected  all  religious  ceremonies. 

The  Persecution  of  the  New  Sects  Led  Many  to  Leave 
England.  —  As  new  sects  sprang  up,  the  older  sects  looked 
with  disfavor  and  distrust  upon  them,  and  began  to  persecute 
them.  Catholics  burned  Protestants  at  the  stake,  and 
Protestants  burned  Catholics.  In  England  the  Established 
Church  was  almost  as  severe  in  its  treatment  of  the  Puritans 
and  Separatists  as  of  the  Catholics.  The  first  Stuart  king, 
James  I,  who  came  to  the  throne  after  the  death  of  Queen 
Elizabeth  in  1603,  was  bitterly  intolerant  towards  all  of  the 
Dissenters  and  determined  to  "  harry  "  them  out  of  the 
land.  Cruel  orders  were  issued  against  Puritans,  Baptists, 


44  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

Presbyterians,  and  Quakers  without  discrimination.  Theii 
leaders  were  imprisoned,  set  in  pillories,  tortured,  and  muti 
lated.  Inasmuch  as  the  Church  and  the  government  were 
both  in  the  same  hands  in  England,  the  Dissenters  came  to 
hate  the  persecuting  government  as  much  as  they  did  the 
Church.  No  wonder  that  so  many  of  them  preferred  the 
rigors  of  the  New  World  to  the  cruelties  of  the  Old.  More 
over,  James  was  glad  to  be  rid  of  them  and  let  them  depart 
in  peace. 

III.     OTHER  CONDITIONS  IN  EUROPE  WHICH  LED  TO  THE 
COLONIZATION  OF  AMERICA 

2.  Cruel  Treatment  of  the  Peasants  in  England.  - 
There  were  other  reasons  why  the  peasants  were  willing 
to  leave  their  country  for  the  New  World.  When  Henry 
VIII  broke  with  the  Pope  of  Rome,  he  seized  the  lands 
of  the  monks  and  nuns  —  millions  of  acres  — •  and  gave 
estates  to  his  favorites.  The  new  landlords,  anxious  to 
make  all  the  money  they  could,  often  turned  their  estates 
into  large  sheep  farms  and  drove  the  tenants  from  their 
homes,  to  starve  or  to  hunt  a  new  way  of  making  a  living 
elsewhere. 

England,  in  Elizabeth's  day,  was  filled  with  wretched 
peasants  who  had  been  driven  from  the  soil  on  which  they 
were  born.  If  they  were  caught  begging,  they  were  im 
prisoned,  whipped,  or  branded.  If  they  were  caught 
Dealing,  they  were  liable  to  be  hanged.  The  jails  were  full 
And  the  poorhouses  were  crowded.  Although  the  population 
of  England  was  really  very  small,  writers  began  to  discuss 
ways  and  means  of  finding  an  outlet  for  the  "  surplus 
people."  A  peasant  harried  from  his  home,  and  ordered 
to  the  whipping  post  by  a  cruel  justice  of  the  peace,  was 
doubtless  prepared  to  try  his  fortune  .almost  anywhere  else 
in  the  world. 


FOUNDING  THE  ENGLISH  COLONIES  IN  AMERICA      45 

3.  The  Development  of  the  Art  of  Printing. -- While 
the  Protestant  revolt  was  growing  and  religious  persecution 
was  spreading  far  and  wide,  other  grave  changes  were  taking 
place.  Printing,  which  had  been  invented  in  Europe 
about  fifty  years  before  Columbus  set  sail,  had  developed 
rapidly.  Books,  which  had  been  luxuries  for  the  few 


THE  INVENTION  OF  PRINTING  :   TAKING  THE  FIRST  IMPRESSION  FROM  TYPES 

when  they  were  all  written  by  hand,  now  became  so  cheap 
that  the  poorer  people  could  afford  them. 

With  the  growth  of  Protestantism,  the  reading  of  the 
Bible  by  the  working  people  became  more  common,  and  the 
various  sects  sought  to  keep  the  children  true  to  their  faith 
by  founding  religious  schools  in  which  were  taught  their 
views  on  the  Bible  and  religion.  Through  books  of 
travel  a  better  knowledge  of  the  world,  of  discoveries  and 
adventures,  spread  even  into  the  remotest  villages  and 
stirred  up  the  more  courageous  to  a  desire  to  seek  liberty 
abroad. 


46          THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

4.    The  New  Supply  of  Gold  from  the  Spanish  Possessions. 
-  The  discoveries  and  conquests  of  the  Spaniards  had  in 
creased  the  gold  and  silver  coin  in  circulation  in  Europe. 
This  had  two  important  effects : 

(a)  Serfs  in  many  parts  of  western  Europe,  who  had  been 
paying  their  landlords  in  labor  and  produce,  began  to  pay 
in  money  and  thus  became  cash  renters  instead  of  bondmen. 
In    a   way   the    change  was    very   much    like   that   in  our 
Southern  states  after  slavery  was  abolished  and  the  slaves 
became  renters  of  the  land  they  formerly  tilled  as  bondmen. 
In  time  the  cash  renter  was  free  to  journey  to  the  towns  or 
to  the  new  countries. 

(b)  Capital  to  invest  in  colonies  was  amassed.     The  in 
crease  in    gold    and    silver,  and  the  discovery   of  the  new 
routes  to  India,  made  business  grow  by  leaps  and  bounds. 
Shrewd  traders  sometimes  made  as  high  as  one  thousand 
or  even  fifteen  hundred  per  cent  on  a  lucky  voyage  to  the 
East  Indies.     The  landlords,  who    now   received    cash    in 
stead  of  labor  and  produce  for  rent,  had  some  ready  money 
to  invest.      In  this  way  it  came    about  that   at  the   time 
when  many  causes  were  driving  people  to  the  point  of  leav 
ing  England,  the  capital  was  available  for  starting  the  set 
tlements  in  the  New  World. 

IV.   ENGLISH   SETTLEMENTS   IN   VIRGINIA 

Settlements  under  "  Companies  "  and  "  Proprietors." 
As  we  all  know,  whenever  any  large  enterprise  is  started,  it 
is  necessary  to  have  labor  and  capital  ready.  There 
are  two  principal  ways  of  getting  the  latter.  Several 
persons  may  band  together  and  each  put  in  a  sum  of  money, 
and  perhaps  add  his  labor  as  well.  This  we  call  forming 
a  "  company."  Another  way  is  for  some  very  rich  and 
powerful  person  to  furnish  all  the  money  and  invite  others 
to  come  into  the  enterprise  under  his  direction.  Such  a 


FOUNDING  THE   ENGLISH   COLONIES   IN  AMERICA      47 

person  is  called  a  "  proprietor."  These  were  the  two  ways 
employed  in  the  seventeenth  century  to  bring  emigrants 
and  capital  together  in  order  to  found  settlements  or 
colonies. 

The    London    Company    Founds    Jamestown    (1607).- 
The  first  successful  settlement  of  the  English  in  America 
was  made  by  a  company  formed  for  the  purpose,  and  duly 
authorized  by  King 
James  I.1  The  king, 
of    course,    claimed 
all  of  the  land  dis 
covered  by  his  sub 
jects,    and    no    one 
had     any    right    to 
settle  upon  it  with 
out    his   permission 
in    the    form    of    a 
grant  or  charter. 

In  1606  James  I 
issued  charters  to 
two  companies,  the 
London  Company 
and  the  Plymouth 
Company,  granting 
to  the  former  an  enormous  tract  to  the  southward  along 
the  Atlantic  coast,  and  to  the  latter  a  great  tract  to  the 


v 


LAND  GRANTED  TO  THE  LONDON   AND   PLYMOUTH 
COMPANIES 


1  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  had  plans  for  founding  a  settlement  in  the  New  World. 
He  landed  at  Newfoundland  (1583)  but  failed  to  establish  a  colony.  In  attempt 
ing  to  return  home,  his  ship  went  down  in  a  storm,  and  all  on  board  were  lost. 
In  1584,  Sir  Humphrey's  half  brother,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  sent  out  an  expedition 
which  reached  Roanoke  Island,  off  the  coast  of  North  Carolina.  On  its  return 
home,  he  so  highly  praised  the  new  country  that  Queen  Elizabeth  was  greatly 
pleased  with  it  and  named  it  after  herself  (the  Virgin  Queen),  "Virginia,"  and 
made  plans  for  a  permanent  colony.  Raleigh  sent  over  many  settlers,  but  all 
his  efforts  came  to  naught.  His  second  band  of  colonists,  including  women  and 
children,  entirely  disappeared  and  no  one  knows  what  became  of  them. 


48 


THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


northward.  The  first  of  these  companies  raised  money, 
equipped  ships,  found  settlers  willing  to  make  the  venture, 
and  dispatched  an  expedition  to  America.  This  expedition 
reached  the  shores  of  Virginia,  and  in  1607  a  colony 
was  founded  on  the  James  River  at  Jamestown,  so  named 
in  honor  of  the  king. 

Hardships  of  the  Colonists:  the  "  Starving  Time." 
The  plantation  at  Jamestown  was  the  beginning  of  the 
colony  of  Virginia  which  was  destined,  in  the  coming  years, 
to  furnish  so  many  well-known  American  leaders,  like 
Washington,  Jefferson,  Madison,  and  Monroe.  For  a 
long  time,  however,  it  gave  little  promise.  The  London 
Company,  which  had  raised  the  capital  for  the  experiment, 
looked  upon  it  largely  as  a  money-making  venture.  They 
expected  that  gold  and  silver  would  be  discovered  and  they 
hoped  for  some  return  from  the  rich 
soil.  But  they  were  disappointed. 
Searches  for  precious  metals  were  fruit 
less,  and  agriculture  did  not  flourish. 

Many  of  the  little  band  of  men  who 
went  out  were  poverty-stricken  persons, 
idlers  who  had  nothing  to  lose  and 
proved  to  be  restless  and  quarrelsome. 
They  were  not  prepared  for  hard  labor. 
When  their  courageous  captain,  John 
Smith,  was  injured  and  compelled  to 
return  home,  they  came  so  near  starving  that  they  prepared 
to  abandon  the  colony.  In  fact  they  had  set  sail,  when 
supplies  and  new  settlers  arrived.  Thus  heartened,  the 
colonists  renewed  the  experiment  with  more  success.  Con 
vinced  at  length  that  no  gold  or  silver  could  be  found,  they 
resigned  themselves  to  earning  a  livelihood  by  tilling  the 
soil. 

Wives  for  the  Settlers.  -  -  The  first  settlers  in  Virginia  did 


JOHN  SMITH 


FOUNDING  THE  ENGLISH  COLONIES  IN  AMERICA     49 

not  bring  wives  with  them,  and  it  was  some  little  time  be 
fore  any  women  appeared  in  the  colony.  In  1619  a  ship 
load  of  them  came  over  to  risk  their  fortunes  in  the  New 
World.  They  were  taken  as  wives  by  the  planters,  who 
paid  for  their  passage  in  tobacco. 

Labor  Difficulties.  — •  It  was  quite  as  difficult  for  the  plant 
ers  to  find  laborers  for  their  great  fields  as  it  was  to  induce 


Cj.Trv.-A  C  ~t  (>,'.  -.  uli     ' 

THE  FIRST  WOMEN  TO  RISK  THEIR  FORTUNES  IN  THE  NEW  \YORLD 

women  to  come  over  to  America.  Many  gentlemen  of 
means  and  poor  sons  of  well-to-do  English  parents  had 
staked  out  huge  estates  and,  unaccustomed  to  hard  labor 
themselves,  they  were  in  dire  straits  for  workmen.  Large 
numbers  of  laborers  who  had  contracted  with  the  Company 
to  work  for  the  planters,  finding  land  plentiful,  refused  to 
carry  out  their  promises  and  went  into  farming  on  their 
own  account  in  the  interior. 

Slavery  Introduced  (i6ip).  —  Altogether,  the  "  labor 
question  "  was  a  serious  one  for  the  gentlemen,  but  at  last  a 
solution  of  the  problem  seemed  to  be  found.  In  1619  a 
cargo  of  negroes,  torn  from  their  homes  in  Africa  by  Dutch 


50  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

slave  traders,  was  brought  into  Virginia  and  sold  to  the 
planters.  The  slave  trade  soon  became  a  profitable  business 
for  shipowners  in  New  England  as  well  as  in  Great  Britain, 
and  in  time  an  abundant  labor  supply  was  furnished  for  the 
plantations. 

Virginia  Becomes  a  Royal  Province. — As  the  population  of 
the  colony  increased,  the  Virginia  Company  in  London 
found  it  more  and  more  difficult  to  manage  a  settlement  of 
turbulent  planters  and  laborers  some  three  thousand  miles 
away.  The  Company's  troubles  were  increased  by  quarrels 
with  James  I,  and  in  1624  the  king  revoked  the  charter, 
broke  up  the  Company,  and  assumed  the  control  himself, 
transforming  the  colony  into  a  "  royal  province." 

The  First  Colonial  Legislature.  —  There  was,  however,  an 
important  check  on  royal  authority.  In  1619  the  Com 
pany  had  invited  the  well-to-do  planters  to  help  in  the 
government  by  sending  two  citizens  from  each  settlement 
and  borough  to  meet  with  the  governor  and  council  at 
Jamestown.  This  was  the  first  "  people's  "  legislature  on 
our  continent.  The  assembly,  or  "  House  of  Burgesses/' 
as  it  was  called,  continued  to  share  in  the  government  of 
Virginia  until  the  Revolution.  Many  and  long  were  the 
disputes  it  had  with  the  royal  governor,  until  at  last, 
weary  of  the  struggle,  Virginia  joined  with  the  other  col 
onies  in  declaring  its  independence  from  Great  Britain. 

V.   ENGLISH  SETTLEMENTS  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

The  Pilgrim  Fathers.  —  Shortly  before  the  London  Com 
pany  was  abolished  by  the  king,  it  granted  to  a  small  band 
of  English  men  and  women,  famous  in  our  history  as  the 
"  Pilgrims,"  permission  to  settle  in  Virginia.  This  little 
group  was  composed  of  humble  folk  who  had  "  dissented  " 
from  the  English  Church  and  declared  their  right  to  form 
independent  religious  congregations  and  to  worship  God 


FOUNDING  THE   ENGLISH   COLONIES   IN  AMERICA      51 

according  to  their  own  consciences.  The  views  and  conduct 
of  these  separatist  congregations  had  thoroughly  disgusted 
King  James  I,  who  did  not  believe  that  "Tom,  Dick, 
Harry,  and  Will "  had  any  right  to  decide  religious  ques 
tions  for  themselves.  James  was  so  intolerant  that  hun 
dreds  of  independents  fled  from  England  to  Holland. 

The  Pilgrims  Reach  America  (1620). — Although  they 
were  generously  treated  by  the  Dutch,  the  Separatists  were 
English  at  heart  and  they  longed  for  a  land  of  their  own. 
After  much  discussion  among  themselves,  many  of  them 
decided  to  go  to  America,  where  their  countrymen  were 
founding  a  new  nation.  In  July,  1620,  the  Pilgrims  set  out 
from  Holland  in  the  ship  Speedwell  for  Southampton,  Eng 
land,  where  they  were  joined  by  another  party  of  Sepa 
ratists  in  the  famous  Mayflower.  The  Speedwell  proved  to 
be  in  such  a  wretched  state  that  the  whole  party  had  to 
put  back  to  port.  It  was  not  until  September  that  the 
Pilgrims,  102  in  number,  crowded  in  the  little  Mayflower, 
finally  sailed  for  America. 

They  expected  to  reach  Virginia,  where  they  had  per 
mission  to  settle ;  but  they  were  driven  by  storms  to  Cape 
Cod,  within  the  territory  of  the  Plymouth  Company,  where 
they  had  no  rights  at  all.  They  debated  for  a  long  time 
what  to  do.  After  four  or  five  weeks  of  exploration  along  the 
coast,  on  December  22,  1620,  they  landed  at  Plymouth.1 

The  Mayflower  Compact.  —  Before  the  Pilgrims  went 
ashore,  the  men  in  the  Company  met  in  the  cabin  of  the 
Mayflower,  and  drew  up  an  agreement  to  form  a  govern 
ment  among  themselves,  and  to  obey  the  rules  made  by 
that  government.  Thus  they  looked  not  to  a  royal  charter 
for  guidance,  but  to  the  authority  established  by  the 
"  Mayflower  Compact,"  which  has  been  called  the  first 

1  They  are  supposed  to  have  stepped  from  their  row  boats  to  a  bowlder  which 
has  become  celebrated  in  our  history  as  "  Plymouth  Rock." 


52  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

written  constitution  in  the  world.  Having  guaranteed 
good  order,  the  Pilgrims  set  about  building  their  homes 
amid  discouragements  such  as  have  come  to  few  pioneers 
in  the  history  of  America. 

Early  Hardships  and  Final  Success  of  the  Colony.  —  The 
cold,  gray  New  England  winter  shut  down  upon  them, 
and  before  summer  came  again  one  half  of  the  devoted 
band  was  dead.  Even  during  the  second  and  third  years 
the  Pilgrims  suffered  grievously.1  Often  "  they  knew  not 
at  night  where  to  have  a  bit  in  the  morning,"  but  they 
were  sustained  by  the  belief  that  God  would  not  abandon 
those  who  worshipped  him  with  such  singleness  of  devotion. 
In  time  their  harvests  became  abundant,  and  friends  from 
England  came  in  such  numbers  that  Plymouth  grew  into  a 
flourishing  settlement. 

The  Puritans  Establish  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony.— 
Massachusetts,  like  Virginia,  was  founded  by  a  commercial 
company  formed  in  England.  It  was  chartered  in  1629  by 
King  Charles  I,  who  granted  to  "  adventurers "  a  large 
domain  within  the  borders  of  the  territory  of  the  old 
Plymouth  Company,  which  had  failed  to  accomplish  any 
thing  important.  This  new  concern,  the  Massachusetts 
Bay  Company,  differed,  in  many  ways,  from  the  London 
Company  which  planted  the  Virginia  Colony. 

In  the  first  place,  it  was  composed  entirely  of  "  Puritan  " 
gentlemen  who,  having  failed  to  reform  the  English  Church 
to  their  own  liking,  were  determined  to  go  where  they  could 
found  churches  of  their  own  (see  page  42). 

In  the  second  place,  the  Massachusetts  Company  did  not 
remain  in  England  and  attempt  to  plant  and  govern  a  colony 


1  The  Pilgrims  early  made  a  treaty  with  Massasoit,  the  chief  of  a  neighbor 
ing  Indian  tribe.  Later  other  tribes  gave  them  some  trouble  which  might  have 
proved  serious,  had  it  not  been  for  the  prompt  action  of  Miles  Standish,  who 
had  been  placed  in  charge  of  the  military  affairs  of  the  little  colony. 


FOUNDING  THE   ENGLISH  COLONIES   IN  AMERICA      53 

across  the  Atlantic.  On  the  contrary,  the  members  of 
the  Company  took  the  charter  which  the  king  had 
granted  them,  gathered  other  Puritans,  together  with  many 


EARLY  NEW  ENGLAND  SETTLEMENTS 


laborers  and  bond  servants,  and  in  1630  came  to  Massa 
chusetts  —  more  than  a  thousand  strong,  in  seventeen 
ships.  Under  the  leadership  of  ]o\\n  Winthrop,  a  very  rich 
and  pious  man,  they  planted  settlements  at  Boston  and 
other  points  around  Massachusetts  Bay. 


54 


THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


JOHN  WINTHROP 


The  Character  of  the  Puritan  Settlers.  —  The  leaders 
among  the  Puritans  were,  for  their  day,  men  of  wealth  and 
education.  They  were  better  equipped  with  ships,  sup 
plies,  and  tools  than  were  the 
Pilgrims  or  the  Virginians.  More 
over,  they  had  little  trouble  in 
getting  free  white  emigrants  for 
their  settlements.  Thousands  of 
their  countrymen  were  only  too 
happy  to  escape  the  persecutions 
of  the  English  king  and  the  Es 
tablished  Church,  and  were  pre 
pared  to  work  hard  with  their 
own  hands  to  clear  the  forests 
and  build  homes  for  themselves 
and  their  children. 

It  is  true,  many  bond  servants  (p.  72)  and  a  few  thou 
sand  slaves  were  brought  into  New  England  ;  but  the  bulk  of 
the  population  was  composed  of  free  farmers  and  their  wives 
who  had  the  courage  to  endure  privations  and  the  will  to 
work  hard  for  their  livelihood.  The  few  bond  men  brought 
into  New  England  were  employed  as  domestic  servants  in 
the  homes  of  the  well-to-do.  The  use  of  African  slaves  in 
the  stony  fields  was  not  profitable. 

Roger  Williams  and  Rhode  Island.  —  Although  the  Puritans 
had  suffered  much  from  persecution,  they  were  unwilling  to 
tolerate  in  their  midst  people  who  did  not  agree  with  them 
in  religious  matters.  Any  new  sect  that  appeared  in  Mas 
sachusetts  was  badly  treated  and  its  members  were  driven 
out  into  the  inland  wildernesses. 

In  1636  Roger  Williams,  who  had  been  preaching  at 
Salem  doctrines  which  were  displeasing  to  the  Puritans, 
was  banished  from  Massachusetts.  With  a  little  band  of 
followers,  he  went  south  and  laid  out  the  town  of  Provi- 


FOUNDING  THE   ENGLISH   COLONIES   IN  AMERICA      55 

dence.  Other  settlements,  including  one  at  Rhode  Island, 
soon  followed.  Seven  years  later,  in  1643,  the  inhabit 
ants  of  this  new  community  were  able  to  get  from  the 
English  parliament  a  charter  forming  them  into  an  in 
dependent  colony,  "  Providence  Plantations."  Twenty 
years  later,  Charles  II  granted  to  Rhode  Island  and  Provi 
dence  a  new  charter  which  was  kept  as  a  constitution 
until  1843. 

The  Beginnings  of  Connecticut  and  New  Hampshire.  — About 
the  same  time  other  bands  of  dissenters,  who  did  not  ap 
prove  the  Puritan  rule  in  Massachusetts  or  were  searching 
for  better  land,  set  out  for  the  Connecticut  River  valley, 
and  there  founded  three  towns,  Hartford,  Windsor,  and 
Wethersfield.  Like  the  Pilgrim  fathers  in  the  Mayflower,  the 
men,  in  1639,  drew  up  a  plan  of  government  and  agreed  to 
abide  by  it.  Their  most  prominent  leader  was  Thomas 
Hooker. 

Another  religious  leader,  John  Davenport,  with  a  con 
gregation  of  faithful  followers,  after  a  short  stay  in  Boston, 
grew  dissatisfied  with  the  Puritans  and  took  the  water 
route  to  the  north  shore  of  Long  Island  Sound,  where  he 
planted  the  colony  of  New  Haven  in  1638.  In  1662  New 
Haven  was  joined  to  the  other  Connecticut  towns  by  a 
royal  charter,  and  all  of  them  were  welded  into  the  colony 
of  Connecticut. 

Like  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut,  New  Hampshire 
was  an  offshoot  from  Massachusetts.  In  1679  it  became  a 
separate  colony  with  a  government  of  its  own. 

The  New  England  Confederation.  —  In  1643  Plymouth, 
Massachusetts  Bay,  Connecticut,  and  New  Haven  formed 
a  union  known  as  the  "New  England  Confederation,"  but 
it  lasted  for  only  a  short  time.  It  was  useful  in  defending 
the  settlers  against  the  Indians  and  it  pointed  the  way  to 
the  final  union  of  all  the  colonies. 


THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


VI.   MARYLAND,   PENNSYLVANIA,    DELAWARE,  THE  CARO- 
LINAS,  AND  GEORGIA 

The  Catholics  in  Maryland.  -  -  The  king  could  give  lands 
to  one  man  or  a  few  men,  as  well  as  to  a  company  of 
men.  In  1632  Charles  I,  who  was  kindly  disposed  towards 

_  Catholics,  granted 
to  a  nobleman  of 
that  faith,  Lord  Bal 
timore,  a  large  block 
of  land  north  of  the 
Potomac.  In  this 
region  the  colony 
of  Maryland  was 
founded. 

It  will  be  remem 
bered  that  the 
Catholics  as  well  as 
the  Puritans  had 
suffered  persecution 
in  England,  and 
many  of  them  were 
ready  to  settle  in  a 
new  country  where 
they  could  worship 
God  in  accord  with 
the  ancient  faith  of 


EARLY  SETTLEMENTS  IN  PENNSYLVANIA,  MARY 
LAND,  AND  DELAWARE 


their  fathers.  They  did  not  long  enjoy  their  new  freedom 
undisturbed.  Protestants  from  New  England  and  from  Vir 
ginia,  fearing  a  Catholic  colony  so  near  at  hand,  poured  into 
Maryland  in  such  force  that  they  soon  outnumbered  the 
original  settlers.  The  proprietor  thereupon  granted  com 
plete  religious  toleration  for  all  who  professed  to  believe  in 
Jesus  Christ.  The  colony  of  Maryland  remained  under 


FOUNDING  THE   ENGLISH   COLONIES   IN  AMERICA      57 

the  rule  of  the  descendants  of   Lord  Baltimore  (except  for 
a  short  time)  until  the  eve  of  the  American  Revolution. 

William  Penn  and  the  Quakers  in  Pennsylvania.  —  Half  a 
century  after  Lord  Baltimore's  Maryland  grant,  Charles  II 
gave  a  great  domain  west  of  the  Delaware  River  to  another 
proprietor,  William  Penn,  a  member  of  the  Society  of 


SURVEYORS  LAYING  OUT  BALTIMORE 


Friends.  The  Friends,  like  the  Catholics  and  Puritans, 
had  suffered  persecution  in  England  and,  in  fact,  some  of 
them  had  been  hanged  by  the  Puritans  in  Massachusetts 
on  account  of  their  religious  opinions.  The  Quakers  were 
therefore  overjoyed  at  finding  an  escape  from  intolerance 
when  Penn  offered  them  cheap  lands  in  the  new  territory 
of  Pennsylvania,  —  Penn's  Woods,  as  the  king  insisted  upon 
naming  it.  The  Quakers  were  very  tolerant  in  their  views 
and  joined  with  the  proprietor  in  welcoming  Christians  of 
all  faiths  to  their  colony.  In  addition  to  the  Quakers, 
great  numbers  of  Protestants  from  northern  _Ireland  and, 
later,  Protestants  from  Germany  came  to  Pennsylvania. 

The  (Quakers  were  shrew3^rnerchants  and  traders  as  well 
as  generous  in  their  religious  opinions,  and  they  soon  had 


58          THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

a  flourishing  city,  Philadelphia,  built  upon  the  banks  of  the 
Delaware.     In  order  to  secure  a  sea-coast  line,  Penn,  in  1682, 

got  possession  of  lands  on  the 
Delaware  River  and  Bay  which 
had  been  settled  by  Swedes  in 
1638.  This  new  territory  re- 
'mamed  a  part  of  Pennsylvania 
until  1703,  when  it  was  formed 
into  a  separate  colony  of  Dela 
ware,  under  the  proprietorship  of 
Penn.  Pennsylvania  and  Dela- 
ware  continued  under  the  direc- 
m  an  old  engramng  tion  of  the  Penn  family  until  the 

Revolution.' 

The  Carolinas  Also  Settled  under  Proprietors.  — Two  English 
colonies  in  the  South,  North  and  South  Carolina,  were 
also  founded  under  the  management  of  proprietors.  In 
1663  King  Charles  II  granted  to  eight  noblemen  a  great 
domain  south  of  Virginia,  extending  to  the  Spanish  posses 
sions  of  Florida.  These  proprietors  sent  out  some  colonists, 
and  other  settlers  migrated  into  their  territory  from  Vir 
ginia.  Charleston  was  founded  in  1680,  and  before  many 
years  it  became  a  thriving  seaport. 

Though  the  settlements  near  Virginia  and  those  farther 
to  the  south  had  little  or  nothing  to  do  with  each  other,  it 
was  many  years  before  the  two  regions  were  divided  into 
separate  colonies,  North  and  South  Carolina.  The  pro 
prietors  were  always  in  trouble  with  the  settlers  over  the 


1  The  boundary  between  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania  was  not  clearly  defined 
in  the  original  charters  granted  to  Lord  Baltimore  and  William  Penn.  As  the 
colonies  became  settled,  difficulties  arose  as  to  the  location  of  the  boundary  line. 
In  1767  two  surveyors,  Mason  and  Dixon,  were  employed  to  mark  a  boundary 
which  has  since  been  known  as  the  "  Mason  and  Dixon  line."  For  many  years 
this  line  was  frequently  spoken  of  as  dividing  the  Northern  from  the  Southern 
states. 


FOUNDING  THE   ENGLISH   COLONIES   IN  AMERICA      59 


payment  of  taxes  and  the  sale  of  lands.  In  1729  the  two 
Carolinas  were  taken  over  by  the  king,  the  proprietors  re 
ceiving  a  few  years  later  a  small  payment  of  money  for  all 
their  rights  and  claims.  From  1729  until  the  Revolution, 
North  and  South  Carolina  remained  royal  provinces. 


0         25        50  100  150 

\Vrna.  Eng.  Co.,  N.Y. 


EARLY  SETTLEMENTS  IN  THE  CAROLINAS  AND  GEORGIA 

James  Oglethorpe  and  the  Settlement  of  Georgia  (1732). 
-  The  last  of  the  English  colonies  was  founded  far  to  the 
south  in  the  Georgia  wilderness.  In  England,  at  the  time 
of  the  reign  of  George  I,  there  dwelt  a  kind  man,  James 
Oglethorpe,  who  took  a  deep  interest  in  the  poor  debtors 
huddled  up  in  the  English  prisons,  and  was  moved  to 
find  an  opportunity  for  them  in  the  New  World.  He  or 
ganized  a  board  of  trustees  and  secured  from  the  king,  for 
a  term  of  years,  a  grant  of  land  to  the  south  of  the  Savan 
nah  River.  Charitable  persons  were  induced  to  give  money 


6o 


THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


for  the  scheme,  on  the  ground  that  it  would  help  the  poor, 
and  business  men  were  invited  to  invest  because  the 
enterprise  promised  to  be  profitable.  Slavery  and  the 
sale  of  rum  were  forbidden  in  the  new  colony.  Every 
effort  was  made  by  the  trustees  to  build  up  prosperous 
settlements. 

The  prisoners  who  were  transported   did   not,   however, 
prove  to  be  very  good  workmen.     So  it  was  found  necessary 


TYPES  OF  MEN  AND  WOMEN  WHO  CAME  OVER  WITH  OGLETHORPE 

to  induce  a  different  class  of  settlers  to  come  into  the  colony. 
Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  labor,  the  rule  against  slavery  was 
abolished  and  large  numbers  of  negroes  were  imported  to 
till  the  plantations.  At  last,  in  1752,  the  trustees  gave 
up  the  experiment  and  turned  Georgia  over  to  the  king, 
George  II.  From  that  time  until  the  Revolution  it  remained 
a  royal  orovince. 

VII.     NEW  YORK  AND  NEW  JERSEY 

The  Dutch  Settle  New  Amsterdam  (1623).  —  One  of  the 
most  important  colonies  in  America  was  not  founded  by 
Englishmen  at  all,  but  by  the  Dutch.  These  hardy  people, 
although  their  independence  from  Spain  was  not  formally 
recognized  until  1648,  had  been  able  to  develop  trading 
and  colonial  enterprises  of  their  own  in  the  East  Indies 
and  in  America.  Under  their  direction,  in  1609,  Henry 


FOUNDING  THE   ENGLISH  COLONIES   IN  AMERICA      6l 

Hudson,  an  Englishman  in  command  of  a  Dutch  fleet, 
sailed  far  up  the  great  river  that  now  bears  his  name,  in 
search  of  a  northwest  passage  to  the  Far  East  where  men 
were  growing  rich  out  of  the  spice  trade.  Although  this  quest 
ended  in  failure,  the  Dutch  West  India  Company,  a  few 
years  later  (1623),  planted  the  post  of  New  Amsterdam  on 
the  Island  of  Manhattan. 


..  ::^-"v.:^..   x:"'^        w^h1?^ 


From  Valentine's  Manual 

THE  HOME  OF  PETER  STUYVESANT  IN  NEW  AMSTERDAM 

In  order  to  induce  wealthy  men  to  undertake  the  up 
building  of  this  country  —  New  Netherland  —  the  Dutch 
company  granted  enormous  estates  to  "  patroons,"  or 
patrons,  who  would  undertake  to  bring  over  parties  of  settlers. 
The  patroons  advanced  the  money  to  pay  for  the  passage 
of  the  men  and  women,  and  for  seeds  and  farming  imple 
ments.  The  immigrants,  in  return,  were  bound  very  much 
like  serfs  to  the  estates  of  the  patroons. 


62 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


The  English  Capture  the  Dutch  Colony.  -  -  The  Dutch 
were  able  to  hold  their  colony  for  a  little  more  than  fifty 
years.  In  1664,  during  a  war  between  England  and  Hol 
land,  a  British  fleet  rode  into  the  harbor  and  compelled 

the  "  leather-sided,  lion- 
hearted  old  governor," 
General  Peter  Stuyve- 
sant,  to  surrender  New 
Amsterdam.  King 
Charles  gave  New  Neth- 
erland  to  his  brother, 
the  Duke  of  York,  and 
the  province  then  be 
came  "  New  York." 
Englishmen  soon  began 
to  settle  down  in  large 
numbers  among  the 
Dutch.  After  the  king 
of  France,  Louis  XIV, 
started  his  religious  per 
secutions  in  1685,  many 
of  his  Protestant  sub 
jects,  known  as  Hugue 
nots,  also  came  to  the 
colony.  They  founded 


EARLY  SETTLEMENTS  IN  NEW  YORK  AND 

NEW  JERSEY 


New  Rochelle,  naming  it  after  their  old  home  in  France. 
Like  the  Dutch,  they  proved  to  be  a  wise  and  frugal  people 
from  whom  sprang  many  persons  eminent  in  American 
history.  In  1685,  when  the  Duke  of  York  became  King 
James  II,  his  colony  was  made  a  royal  province. 

The  Settlement  of  New  Jersey. — The  Dutch  had  also 
claimed  the  country  across  the  Hudson  River  to  the  west 
and  south.  When  they  were  overthrown  by  the  English 
that  region  was  granted  to  Sir  George  Carteret  and  Lord 


FOUNDING  THE   ENGLISH   COLONIES   IN   AMERICA    63 


Berkeley,  the  former  assuming  the  office  of  governor.     In 
asmuch  as  he  had  once  been  governor  of  the  Isle  of  Jersey 
in   the   English  Chan 
nel,  it  was  thought  fit 
ting  to  name  the  colony 
"  Ne.¥  Jersey."    Some 
time  afterward  it  was 
sold    to    Quaker   pro 


prietors. 


and  in  1702 
it  became  a  royal 
province.  It  was  at 
first  attached  to  New 
York,  but  several  years 
later  (1738)  it  was 
given  a  royal  governor 
of  its  own. 


l-WX;!^^:^'.!..'--^^  J_,  .:.:r'"'^*I:.':;:'-l- •   -  -  ;'•  | 

ONE  OF  THE  FIRST  MEETING  HOUSES  IN  THE 
COLONIES  AT  NEWARK,  N.  J. 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.    Why  were  the  European  soldiers  not  likely  to  make  good 
settlers  for  the  new  lands  in  America  ?      2.    In  what  ways  did  the 
Indians  make  settlement  by  Europeans  difficult  ? 

II.  I.    Why  did  the  religious  changes  in  Europe  lead  people 
to  settle  in  America  ?     2.  Who  were  the  Protestants  ?    The  Puri 
tans  ?     The  Separatists  ?     3.    What  is  meant  by  "  intolerance  "  in 
religion  ? 

III.  i.    Why  was  the  development  of  printing  important  in 
leading  to  the   settlement  of  America,   even   though  few  people 
could  read  at  that  time  ?       2.    How  were  the  peasants  treated  in 
England  at  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth  ?     What  effect  did  this 
have  upon   emigration  to  America  ?       3.    It  is  easy  to  see  that 
the  American  gold,  poured  into  Europe  as  a  result  of  the  Spanish 
conquests,  would   have   led   fortune-hunters   and  adventurers  to 
America ;  but  how  did  it  influence  real  settlement  and  coloniza 
tion  ? 

IV.  i.    When    and   where   was   the   first    permanent    English 
settlement  made  in  America  ?       2.    How  was  this  colony  governed 
at  the  outset  ?       3.    Why  did  the  settlement  come  near  to  failure  ? 


64  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

4.  When  and  why  were  African  slaves  introduced  ?  5.  Why 
did  this  settlement  become  a  royal  colony  ?  What  is  meant  by 
that  term  ? 

V.  I.    Who  were  the  Pilgrims,  and  why  did  they    decide   to 
settle  in  America  ?     Locate  Plymouth  on  the  map  and  tell  how 
they  happened  to  choose  this  place  for  their  home.        2.    What 
was  the  Mayflower  Compact  ?      Why  is  it  important  in  our  his 
tory  ?       3.    What  other  important  colony  was  established  in  what 
is   now  Massachusetts  ?     By  whom  ?        4.    Compare  the  settlers 
in  New  England  with  those  in  Virginia.       5.    Who  was  Roger 
Williams  ?     With  what  colony  is  his  name  connected  ?     6.  Locate 
on  the  map  the   points   at  which    Connecticut  was  first  settled. 
Whence  came  the  first  settlers  of  Connecticut  ? 

VI.  I.    What  is  meant  by  the  proprietary  colonies  ?     2.   Name 
the  proprietors  and  the  religious  denominations  that  should  be 
remembered  in  connection  with  the  settlement  of  Maryland.      In 
Pennsylvania.        3.    State  how  Delaware  and  the  two  Carolinas 
came  first  to  be  settled.       4.    How  did  the  settlement  of  Georgia 
differ  from  that  of  the  other  colonies  ? 

VII.  i.    Why  did  the  people  of  Holland  establish  a  settlement 
in  America  ?       2.    When   and   how  did   they  lose  their  colony  ? 
What  became  of  it  ?       3.   Why  does  New  Jersey  have  the  name 
that  it  now  bears  ? 

Review:  i.  Make  a  list  of  the  colonies  in  the  order  of  their 
settlement ;  underline  the  names  of  the  colonies  that  were  settled 
by  people  who  were  seeking  religious  freedom;  place  a  check  (V) 
before  those  that  were  founded  by  companies,  and  a  cross  (X)  be 
fore  those  that  were  founded  by  proprietors.  2.  Copy  the  fol 
lowing  names  and  place  after  each  the  colony  with  which  the 
name  is  connected  :  —  Lord  Berkeley;  Lord  Baltimore;  Sir  George 
Carteret;  John  Smith;  John  Winthrop;  William  Penn;  James 
Oglethorpe;  Peter  Stuyvesant. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Find   out  from   the  dictionary  the  differences  of  meaning 
of  the  following  words  :  religion,  denomination,  sect. 

2.  Why  is  a  person  who  is  paid  for  his  labor  in  money  generally 
more  independent  than  one  who  is  paid  for  his  labor  in  food,  cloth 
ing,  and  shelter  ? 


FOUNDING  THE  ENGLISH  COLONIES  IN  AMERICA    65 

3.  The  text  says,  "There  was  no  way  of  inducing  the  Indian 
to  adopt  the  white  man's  way  of  living."     From  a  study  of  the 
life  and  habits  of  the  Indians  make  a  list  of  the  most  important 
differences  between  uncivilized  and  civilized  peoples.     Try  to  ar 
range  the  differences  in  the  order  of  their  importance. 

For  descriptions  of  Indian  life,  see  Hart's  "Colonial  Children," 
pp.  91-130;  Hart's  "Source  Book  of  American  History,"  pp.  23-26; 
Eggleston's  "Our  First  Century,"  pp.  207-209;  Smith's  "The 
Colonies,"  ch.  xviii ;  Parkman's  "Struggle  for  a  Continent," 
pp.  460-472 ;  479-486- 

4.  Select    one   of  the    following   topics    for   special    study 
and  report : 

(a)  The      Jamestown       settlement:      See       Southworth's 
"Builders  of  Our  Country,"   Book  I,   pp.   73-78;   Tappan's 
"American    Hero    Stories,"    pp.    38-49;    Eggleston's    "Our 
First  Century,"  chs.   ii,  iii,  iv,  v;    Smith's    "The  Colonies," 
ch.  i;  Johnson's  "  Captain  John  Smith,"  chs.  ix-xix. 

(b)  The  Plymouth  settlement:     See  Southworth,  pp.  89- 
100;  Tappan,  pp.  59-72;    Hart's    "Colonial     Children,"     pp. 
133-136;   Tiffany's    "Pilgrims    and    Puritans,"    pp.    20-91; 
Eggleston,    pp.    61-72;    Brooks's    "Stories    of   the    Old    Bay 
State,"  pp.  15-39. 

(c)  The    New    York    settlement :      See     Southworth,    pp. 
130-141;    Tappan,    pp.     73-83;    Eggleston,   ch.  x;     Smith's 
"The  Colonies,"  chs.  vi,  vii. 

(d)  Pennsylvania:    See  Southworth,  pp.  187-196 ;  Tappan, 
pp.  108-116;    Smith,   chs.   xii,  xiii ;    Eggleston,  ch.  xiv;  Hol 
land's  "  William  Penn,"  chs.  viii,  ix,  xii. 

(<?)    The  Carolinas  :      See  Eggleston,  ch.  xiii ;    Smith,  ch.  v. 

5.  Reference  is  made  in  this  chapter  to  the  struggle  of  the  Dutch 
people  for  independence  in  the  sixteenth  century.     One  of  the  great 
figures  of  world  history  was  an  important  leader  in  this  struggle. 
Find  out  who  he  was  and  what  he  did. 

See  Nida's  "Dawn  of  American  History  in  Europe,"  ch.  xxvii. 


CHAPTER  IV 
PEOPLING  THE  AMERICAN  COLONIES 

The  history  of  the  English  colonies  from  the  founding  of 
Jamestown  in  1607  to  the  eve  of  the  American  Revolu 
tion  is,  in  the  main,  a  story  of  the  migration  of  thousands 
of  settlers  —  men,  women,  and  children  —  across  the  ocean, 


PEOPLE  OF  THE  AMERICAN  COLONIES  —  CAVALIER,  PURITAN,  HOLLANDER, 

AND  FRIEND 

and  of  the  westward  movement  of  the  people  who  pressed 
inland,  clearing  the  forests  and  building  homes,  villages, 
and  towns.  Indian  wars  there  were  a-plenty,  and  many 
battles  with  the  neighboring  French  and  Spanish ;  but  the 
chief  business  was  the  task  of  making  the  wilderness  habit 
able  and  securing  people  to  do  the  hard  work. 

Why  the  People  Came.  —  If  we  try  to  find  out  why  people 
came  to  this  country,  we  discover  that  there  were  several 
reasons : 

66 


PEOPLING  THE  AMERICAN  COLONIES  67 

1.  Many  of  the  immigrants,  of  course,  were  adventurers 
and  fortune  seekers,   hoping  to  find  in  America  a  way  to 
get  rich  quickly. 

2.  Thousands  came  to  seek  a  place  where  they  could  be 
long  to  any  church  they  chose,  and  worship  God  according  to 
their  consciences. 

3.  Still  others  were  sent  away  from  Europe  as  undesirable 
citizens. 

4.  By  far  the  greater  portion  came  for  other  reasons : 
especially  because  they  hoped  to  find  business  opportunities 
in  America  or  to  escape  from  poverty  and  wretchedness  in 
their  native  land,  and  to  make  better  homes  for  themselves 
and  their  children. 

I.   IMPORTANT  CAUSES  OF  IMMIGRATION 

i.    Exaggerated   Statements  Made  to    Tempt    Colonists. 

Land-Owners  Seek  Labor. — The  companies,  proprietors, 
and  individuals  who  received  land  grants  were  anxious  to 
secure  settlers  in  order  to  increase  the  value  of  their  property. 
Land  without  hands  to  labor  on  it  was  worth  no  more 
than  mountains  in  the  moon.  In  order  to  induce  workers 
to  go  to  the  New  World  and  settle,  gorgeous  pictures  of 
easy  life  and  riches  in  America  were  drawn  by  land  agents. 
Wher  William  Penn  secured  his  grant  from  Charles  II,  he 
advertised  widely  in  England  and  Europe  to  attract  immi 
grants  to  his  newly  acquired  wilderness. 

Moreover,  wild  stories  about  chains  of  gold,  plates  of 
silver,  and  ornaments  of  precious  stones  were  spread  abroad 
among  the  people.  As  time  went  on,  such  absurd  tales 
were  discredited  ;  but  very  alluring  stones  of  the  ease  with 
which  a  few  hundred  acres  could  be  secured  and  a  home 
built,  drew  thousands  of  English,  Dutch,  and  German  peas 
ants  to  the  New  World.  Tracts,  poems,  booklets,  and 
handbills  were  printed  and  widely  circulated,  explaining 


68  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

the  wonderful  opportunities  in  the  colonies  for  those  who 
wanted  to  escape  serfdom  and  poverty  in  the  Old  World. 

Stimulation  of  Emigration  by  Ship-Owners.  --The  owners 
of  ships  soon  joined  with  the  great  land-owners  in  encourag 
ing  emigration  to  America.  Each  passenger  was  charged 
from  three  hundred  to  five  hundred  dollars  for  the  trip, 
and  the  more  passengers  the  more  money  for  the  ship 
pers.  They  therefore  established  offices  in  various  ports, 
and  persuaded  people  to  emigrate.  Their  agents  displayed 
the  products  of  the  new  country  and  asserted  that  plenty 
of  good  land  could  be  had  for  the  asking. 

2.  Desire  for  Religious  Freedom. — There  was  perhaps 
less  effort  in  New  England  to  induce  immigrants  to  come 
over  than  in  the  middle  and  southern  colonies.  The 
bulk  of  the  population  in  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut,  on  the  eve  of  the  Revolu 
tion  was  composed  of  the  descendants  of  the  twenty-five  or 
thirty  thousand  Puritans  who  came  to  seek  religious  freedom, 
as  well  as  opportunities  to  make  a  living. 

The  Puritans.  —  No  other  people  were  better  fitted 
for  the  stern  task  of  conquering  the  wilderness  than  were 
the  Puritans.  They  disliked  idleness  and  evil  doing  of  every 
kind.  They  were  all  devoted  to  their  church,  attended  its 
meetings  regularly,  and  kept  the  Sabbath  strictly.  They 
thought  "  stage  plays  "  were  wicked.  On  Sunday  many 
a  boy  was  soundly  thrashed  by  his  Puritan  father  for 
whistling  a  merry  tune  when  he  should  have  been  thinking 
of  life,  death,  and  eternity. 

So  zealous  were  they  in  their  faith  that  they  would  not 
permit  any  one  who  was  not  a  member  of  their  church 
to  vote  or  take  part  in  government.  They  established 
schools  where  children  had  to  learn  to  read  the  Bible  and 
the  catechism,  and  colleges  for  the  education  of  ministers, 
lawyers,  and  "  gentlemen." 


PEOPLING  THE  AMERICAN  COLONIES 


69 


The  Puritans  had  a  deep  influence  on  the  thinking  and  the 
literature  of  America.  Strains  of  Puritanism  run  through 
all  our  politics  and  poetry.  In  the  eighteenth  century 
New  England  furnished  many  leaders  in  the  Revolution  : 
men  like  James  Otis,  one  of  the  first  to  lift  his  voice  against 
the  arbitrary  deeds  of  the  British  Government ;  Samuel 


From  a  painting  by  Boughton 


PILGRIMS  GOING  TO  CHURCH 


They  were  all  devoted  to  their  church,  attended  its  meetings  regularly,  and  kept   the 

Sabbath  strictly. 

Adams,  whose  courage  heartened  his  countrymen  in  their 
resistance  to  royal  authority ;  and  John  Hancock,  who 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence  with  such  a  clear 
hand  that  even  King  George  could  read  it.  In  the  early 
nineteenth  century  New  England  gave  the  country  many 
poets,  Whittier,  Longfellow,  Bryant;  historians,  Bancroft, 
Parkman,  and  Prescott ;  and  champions  of  freedom  for 
the  slaves,  Garrison,  Phillips,  and  Sumner. 


yo  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

Quakers,  Dunkards,  and  Other  Sects.  —  Outside  of  New 
England  the  religious  influences  in  colonization  were  less 
marked  but  still  very  powerful.  At  New  Rochelle,  in  New 
York,  there  was  a  settlement  of  French  Huguenots.  In 
New  Jersey,  the  Presbyterians  were  numerous.  In  Dela 
ware  and  Pennsylvania,  Quakers,  Mennonites,  Dunkards, 
Moravians,  and  Lutherans  dwelt  side  by  side  in  pros 
perous  settlements. 

The  first  of  these,  the  Quakers,  or  the  Friends,  though  by 
no  means  as  numerous  as  the  Puritans,  proved  to  be  a  great 
force  in  American  life.  While  strict  in  their  habits,  frugal, 
and  stern,  they  were,  for  their  time,  very  tolerant  in  religious 
matters.  They  early  admitted  members  of  other  churches 
to  a  voice  in  the  government  of  Pennsylvania  and  invited 
all  peoples  to  come  who  were  "  peaceably  disposed." 

Presbyterians  from  Scotland  and  Ireland.  —  Another  very 
important  religious  element  was  composed  of  the  Presby 
terian  Scotch-Irish.  Many  Scotch  came  directly  from 
Scotland  to  the  New  World,  particularly  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  but  most  of  them  came  by  the  way  of  Ireland. 
Thousands  of  Scotch  and  English  settled  in  northern  Ire 
land  in  the  seventeenth  century  after  the  English  general, 
Cromwell,  and  his  soldiers  drove  masses  of  the  Irish  from 
their  native  soil. 

They  flourished  in  Ireland  for  a  time,  but  after  a  while 
the  English  parliament  began  to  make  laws  which  injured 
their  woolen  industry;  and  they  got  into  religious  diffi 
culties  with  the  Church  of  England  as  well.  They  then 
set  out  for  America  in  great  numbers.  Often  an  entire 
village  or  congregation,  pastor  and  all,  would  migrate.  It 
is  estimated  that  at  least  200,000  came  in  colonial  times, 
and  that  when  the  Revolution  broke  out  one  sixth  of  the 
population  was  composed  of  the  Scotch-Irish.  They  settled 
largely  in  the  western  regions  of  Pennsylvania,  Virginia- 


PEOPLING  THE  AMERICAN  COLONIES  71 

and  the  Carolinas,  and  were  counted  a  hardy  and  dogged 
race,  equally  zealous  at  praying,  working,  and  fighting 

The  Catholics  in  Maryland. — Though  surrounded  on  all 
sides  by  Protestants,  the  Catholics  of  Maryland  increased 
in  numbers  and  prosperity.  By  wise  toleration  of  other 
religious  sects,  they  pointed  the  way  to  religious  freedom. 

Puritan  Rule  in  England  Causes  Many  Royalists  to  Emi 
grate.  --  By  a  curious  turn  of  fortune,  a  large  number  of 
Englishmen  who  had  been  persecuting  the  Puritans  or  had 
been  of  the  party  of  persecution,  were  also  driven  to  settle 
in  America.  The  Puritans,  in  a  famous  revolution,  over 
threw  the  monarchy,  beheaded  King  Charles  I  in  1649,  and 
set  up  their  own  government  under  Cromwell.  At  this  time, 
many  of  the  royalists,  "  Cavaliers,"  as  they  were  styled, 
left  England  for  Virginia  because  they  hated  Cromwell's 
rule.  They  were  loyal  to  the  king  and  to  the  Church  of 
England,  the  official  church  in  Virginia. 


II.    POVERTY   A   CAUSE   OF   IMMIGRATION  ;    INVOLUNTARY 

COLONIZATION 

3.  Poverty.  --  It  would  be  a  mistake  to  assume  that 
the  members  of  the  various  religious  sects  were  all  pros 
perous  in  the  Old  Country  and  came  to  America  merely 
to  gain  freedom  of  worship.  On  the  contrary,  most  of 
them  were  poverty  stricken  and  had  to  struggle  hard  to 
gain  a  foothold  in  the  New  Country. 

Taking  the  immigrants  all  in  all,  it  would  doubtless  be 
safe  to  say  that  two  thirds  of  them  did  not  come  to  America 
because  they  were  discontented  with  the  churches  or  govern 
ments  of  Europe,  but  because  they  sought  to  escape  grind 
ing  poverty  or  were  sent  here  against  their  will.  Some 
times  those  who  came  on  account  of  religious  scruples  were 
mclined  to  look  down  upon  the  others  as  less  worthy;  but 


72  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

who  can  say  that  it  was  any  less  honorable  to  come  to 
America  to  find  better  homes  and  freer  life  than  to  escape 
religious  persecution  ? 

4.  Involuntary  Colonization :  Slaves  and  Criminals.  — 
Those  who  were  brought  here  against  their  will  were  very 
numerous  indeed.  There  were,  of  course,  the  negroes  taken 
from  Africa  and  sold  as  slaves.  In  addition  to  these, 
Europe  sent  to  America  thousands  of  men  and  women 
charged  with  crimes,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  them. 

Probably  most  of  them  were  the  hapless  victims  of  cruel 
laws  and  benighted  judges.  It  was  a  common  thing,  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  for  a  peasant  to  be  hanged  for  shoot 
ing  a  rabbit  on  his  landlord's  estate,  or  for  filching  some 
trifle,  or  for  an  educated  person  to  be  transported  for  life 
for  criticizing  the  king.  Doubtless  many  such  "  criminals  " 
who  were  sent  over  proved  to  be  as  good  citizens  as  some 
who  came  for  their  consciences'  sake. 

Impressment  of  Immigrants.  —  Among  those  who  came 
against  their  will  were  numbers  of  men  and  women,  boys 
and  girls,  kidnapped  in  the  streets  of  the  cities  or  sold 
by  merciless  relatives.  It  was  estimated  that  no  fewer  than 
ten  thousand  were  carried  ofF  in  one  year  from  England 
alone.  Shiploads  of  artisans,  weavers,  blacksmiths,  car 
penters,  and  other  skilled  workingmen  were  taken  in  this 
manner,  and  thousands  of  poor  girls  were  dragged  to  America 
to  be  sold  as  wives  to  colonists  or  as  household  drudges. 
It  was  openly  said  in  the  English  parliament  that  the  plan 
tations  could  not  be  maintained  "without  a  considerable 
number  of  white  servants." 

The  Bond  Servants.  --  By  far  the  largest  single  class  of 
white  people  who  settled  in  the  English  colonies  in  America 
—  larger  perhaps  than  all  the  free  Puritans  and  Cavaliers 
combined  —  was  composed  of  "  white  servants,"  bound  to 
labor  for  their  masters  for  a  term  of  years  to  pay  for 


PEOPLING  THE  AMERICAN  COLONIES 


73 


their  passage  across  the  ocean.  Bond  servants  differed 
from  slaves  principally  in  the  fact  that  their  term  of  serv 
ice  was  from  three  or  four  to  seven  or  ten  years,  as  the 


People  were  kidnapped  in  the  streets  of  cities  and  sent  to  the  New  World. 

case  might  be,  instead  of  for  life.  Women  were  generally 
sold  at  the  same  price  as  men,  and  commonly  worked 
barefooted  in  the  fields  with  men.  Many  people  who  were 
ground  down  by  poverty  in  Europe  were  glad  to  sell  them- 


74  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

selves  for  a  few  years,  in  order  to  have  a  chance  to  get  a 
fresh  start  in  a  new  land. 

White  bondage  was  common  throughout  the  colonial 
period  and  well  into  the  nineteenth  century;  in  fact,  until 
the  "  free  labor  "  supply  became  sufficiently  large  to  meet 
the  growing  demand  for  men  and  women  on  the  farms  and 
in  the  shops. 

The  system  began  with  the  foundation  of  the  colonies. 
The  well-to-do  Puritans  who  settled  Boston  and  the  sur 
rounding  regions  brought  many  bond  servants.  White  servi 
tude  was  very  extensive  in  Virginia  in  the  early  years  of  that 
colony  and  for  a  long  time  rivaled  negro  slavery  as  the 
source  of  labor  supply.  Slavery  won  at  last,  for  slaves 
were  easier  to  get  and  less  troublesome  than  white  servants, 
and  besides  they  were  bound  for  life  instead  of  for  a  few 
years.  Pioneer  settlers  in  the  Carolinas,  Maryland,  and 
New  Jersey  also  brought  large  numbers  of  servants  with 
them.  In  some  cases  as  many  as  sixty  would  be  found 
under  a  single  master. 

.  William  Penn,  to  stimulate  the  settlement  of  Pennsyl 
vania,  offered  special  advantages  to  those  immigrants  who 
would  bring  one  or  more  bond  servants  with  them.  As  the 
Quakers  disliked  negro  slavery,  white  servitude  seemed  to 
offer  a  way  out  of  the  difficulty  of  securing  "  hands." 
It  is  estimated  that  two  thirds  of  the  immigrants  into  this 
colony  between  the  years  1707  and  1784  —  especially  the 
German  settlers  —  were  bond  servants.  The  newspapers 
at  the  time  were  full  of  advertisements  like  this,  taken  from 
a  Philadelphia  paper  of  1728:  "Lately  imported  and  to  be 
sold  cheap,  a  parcel  of  likely  men  and  women  servants." 

Hardships  of  the  Bond  Servants.  —  Like  the  negro  slaves, 
the  bond  servants  were  crowded  into  the  ships  that  brought 
them  over.  Each  captain's  profits  depended  upon  the  num 
ber  he  could  herd  between  decks.  England  wished  to  see 


PEOPLING  THE  AMERICAN   COLONIES  75 

the  colonies  settled  rapidly  and  the  colonists  were  anxious 
for  laborers.  So  the  overcrowded  conditions  on  ships  were 
nothing  short  of  dreadful.  It  was  a  common  thing  for  the 
immigrant  to  have  to  supply  himself  with  food  on  the  voy 
age  ;  if  there  were  long  delays  due  to  calms  or  storms, 
many  died  of  starvation  and  lack  of  water. 

The  lot  of  the  servant  on  landing  depended  upon  his 
good  fortune  in  finding  a  master.  Some  found  good  masters 
and  were  generously  treated  ;  others  were  beaten  and  over 
worked. 

Cruel  as  the  system  was  in  many  ways,  it  gave  to  tens 
of  thousands  of  poor  people  in  England,  Scotland,  Ireland, 
and  Europe  the  opportunity  to  reach  America.  After  the 
expiration  of  their  terms,  large  numbers  of  bond  servants 
settled  on  lands  of  their  own  and  took  their  places  among  the 
free  citizens. 

Colonial  America  a  "  Melting  Pot "  of  the  Races.  - 
Some  one  has  called  America  of  the  twentieth  century  the 
"  melting  pot,"  in  which  all  the  races  of  the  earth  and  all 
sorts  and  conditions  of  people  are  welded  together  in  one 
nation.  Although  the  immigrants  during  the  colonial 
period  were  mainly  from  the  British  Islands,  America  was 
even  then  a  melting  pot.  Nearly  all  religious  sect'  ~vere 
represented,  and  with  the  English,  Irish,  and  Scotch  were 
mingled  Dutch,  French,  Swedes,  and  Germans.  The  ma 
jority  of  those  who  came  brought  no  riches  with  them  — 
only  stout  hearts  and  willingness  to  labor  wherever  they 
could  find  an  opportunity. 

Some  writers  have  sought  to  hide  the  humble  origin  of  so 
many  American  citizens,  as  if  ashamed  to  tell  the  truth. 
Rather  should  we  regard  it  as  a  marvelous  testimony  to  the 
dignity  and  worth  of  human  nature  that  out  of  so  many 
who  came  to  America  poor  and  lowly,  a  great  nation  of 
self-governing  people  could  be  built  up. 


76  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.    Why    were    companies,    proprietors,    and    ship-owners 
tempted  to  exaggerate  the  opportunities  of  settlers  in  the  New 
World  ?       2.    In   what    colonies   were   the    settlers    most   largely 
made  up  of  those  who  had  left  Europe  to  seek  religious  freedom  r 
3.    Many  people  have  thought  that  most  of  the  early  immigrants 
came  to  America  for  this  purpose.     Can  you  explain  why  they 
have  held  this  opinion  ? 

II.  I.    What  is  meant  by  the  term  involuntary  colonization  ? 
2.    What    different  kinds    of   people    were    brought    to    America 
against  their  wills  ?       3.    What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  bond 
servant  ?     How  did  bond  service  differ  from  slavery  ?       4.    What 
advantages  did  the  system  of  bond  service  offer  to  poor  people 
who  wished  to  escape  the  poverty  of  the  Old  World  ?     What  were 
its  disadvantages  and  dangers  ? 

Review:  State  the  important  differences  among  the  following 
types  of  immigrants  to  the  colonies  :  Puritans ;  Cavaliers ;  Bond 
Servants. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Imagine  yourself  a  passenger  on   a  ship  from   England  to 
America  in  early  colonial  times.     Tell  about  the  length  of  the 
voyage,  what  you  would  have  had  to  eat,  the  characteristics  of 
your  fellow-passengers,  the  dangers  and  discomforts  of  the  trip. 

See  Hart's  "Colonial  Children,"  pp.  25-28,  34-35,  52-53. 

2.  Oliver  Cromwell  is  mentioned  in  this  chapter  as  the  leader 
of  the  Puritans  in  the  English  Revolution.     Find   out   the  main 
facts  about  this  revolution.     Why  did  Cromwell's  part  in  the  revo 
lution  make  him  one  of  the  great  men  of  English  history  ? 

See  Warren's  "  Stories  from  English  History,"  pp.  258-291 ; 
Tappan's  "England's  Story,"  pp.  235-251. 


CHAPTER   V 

THE   STRUGGLE  AMONG  THE  POWERS  OF   EUROPE   FOR 
NORTH  AMERICA 

The  two  preceding  chapters  have  dealt  principally  with 
the  English  colonies  in  America,  but  it  must  not  be  thought 
that  other  European  countries  were  all  this  time  unmindful 
of  the  advantages  which  the  New  World  offered.  In  enter 
prise  for  exploration  the  French  were  not  a  whit  behind  the 
English,  and  only  the  lack  of  settlers  prevented  them  from 
making  New  France  as  strong  as  New  England.  The 
Spanish  were  all  the  while  busy  in  the  Southwest  convert 
ing  Indians  and  making  settlements.  And  long  before  the 
American  revolution  the  Russians  had  obtained  a  foothold 
in  the  Northwest. 

I.  FRENCH  EXPLORATIONS  AND  SETTLEMENTS 

French  sailors  from  the  coasts  of  Brittany  and  Normandy 
were  as  hardy  and  daring  as  their  rivals  across  the  channel. 
Long  before  the  foundation  of  the  first  English  colony, 
there  were  a  hundred  or  more  French  fishing  vessels  ofF  the 
coast  of  Newfoundland  every  year.  French  explorers 
early  began  a  search  for  lake  and  river  routes  to  the  western 
ocean.  As  we  have  seen,  one  year  after  the  foundation  of 
Jamestown  and  twelve  years  before  the  landing  of  the 
Pilgrims,  the  French  under  Champlain  had  established  a 
post  far  up  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  at  Quebec.  In  1642, 
just  a  little  while  after  the  outposts  of  Connecticut  were 


THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


planted,   the   French   established   Montreal   farther   up   the 
St.  Lawrence. 

The  French  Explore  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Mississippi. 
-  From  these  points  of  vantage  in  the  St.  Lawrence  Val- 


0 


GULF    OF  MTEXICO 


Wms.  Tng.   Co..    N.r. 


FRENCH  EXPLORATIONS  AND  TRADING  POSTS 

ley,  the  French  pressed  inland,  seeking  first  a  way  to  China, 
and  then  turning  to  the  exploration  of  the  vast  interior. 
The  early  voyagers  were  so  certain  of  finding  Chinese  in 
the  distant  inland  regions  that  they  took  special  goods 
to  trade  with  the  Orientals  and  special  costumes  to  wear 
on  being  received  by  them.  They  explored  the  regions  of 


THE  STRUGGLE   FOR  NORTH  AMERICA 


79 


the  Great  Lakes  ;  they  planted  a  cross  at  Sault  Sainte  Marie ; 

and  in  1673  two  of  the  most  famous  explorers,  Marquette, 

a  Jesuit  missionary,  and  Joliet,  reached  the  waters  of  the 

upper  Mississippi.      These 

adventurous  men  and  a  few 

companions    drifted    down 

the    Mississippi     past    the 

present  site    of    St.    Louis 

and  far  beyond,  until  they 

came    near  enough  to   the 

outlet  to  satisfy  themselves 

that  the  great  river  flowed 

into    the    Gulf   of   Mexico 

somewhere    "west    of    the 

Cape   of  Florida   ana   east 

of  the  California  Sea." 

La  Salle's  Work  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley.  —  Nine 
years  after  Marquette  and 
Joliet  made  their  memor 
able  voyage  down  the 
Mississippi  and  returned 
overland,  another  explorer,  La  Salle,  went  all  the  way 
down  the  Illinois  River  and  the  Mississippi  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  He  took  possession  of  the  fertile  valleys  far  and 
wide,  in  the  name  of  the  French  king,  Louis  XIV,  and  in 
his  honor  called  the  land  "Louisiana."  One  of  La  Salle's 
officers  sent  back  a  report  of  this  region  as  follows  : 

In  the  rich  bottom  lands  were  corn  fields  and  smiling  meadows, 
mulberry  trees  and  grape  vines,  and  a  great  variety  of  fruits  grew 
wild  in  the  woodlands ;  magnificent  pine  forests  offered  an  inex 
haustible  supply  of  naval  stores,  while  lead  deposits  that  would 
yield  two  parts  of  ore  to  one  of  refuse  only  waited  the  miner's 
pick.  Beaver  were  rare,  but  buffalo,  bear,  wolves  and  deer 


From  an  old  print 

A  MISSIONARY  TRAVELING  IN  THE  WIL 
DERNESS 


8o 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


abounded.  The  trade  in  peltry  alone  could  be  made  to  yield  20,000 
ecus  1  per  year.  When  the  Indians  are  trained  to  tend  silk  worms, 
that  industry  alone  would  furnish  a  valuable  article  of  trade. 

A  few  years  after  his  famous  journey  down  the  Missis 
sippi,  La  Salle  brought  over  an  expedition  for  the  purpose 
of  settling  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  Owing  to  a  miscalcula 
tion,  he  missed  the  outlet  and  drifted  westward  to  the 


In   1718  the  governor  of  Louisiana,   Jean  Baptiste    le  Moyne   de   Bienville,   founded  a 
settlement  at  New  Orleans. 

shores  of  Texas,  where  he  was  murdered  by  his  discouraged 
companions. 

The  French  Found  New  Orleans  (1718)  and  St.  Louis.  — - 
Undismayed  by  the  disaster  which  befell  La  Salle,  another 
French  soldier,  Pierre  le  Moyne  d'Iberville,  with  an  armed 
force,  set  out  from  France  in  1698  and  started  a  colony 
at  Biloxi  on  the  Gulf.  Twenty  years  later,  in  1718,  the 
governor  of  Louisiana,  Jean  Baptiste  le  Moyne  de  Bien 
ville,  founded  a  settlement  at  New  Orleans. 

1  About  $200,000  in  money  at  present  value. 


THE   STRUGGLE   FOR  NORTH  AMERICA  8 1 

After  difficult  beginnings,  the  French  colonies  began  to 
grow  rapidly,  and  under  Bienville,  the  settlement  at  New 
Orleans  flourished,  until  it  became  a  town  of  no  mean  or 
der  as  compared  with  other  colonial  ports.  Traces  of  by 
gone  days  are  to  be  found  everywhere  in  New  Orleans 
still.  The  French  quarter  with  its  narrow  streets,  the  old 
cemeteries  built  above  ground  because  water  would  flow 
into  the  shallowest  grave  dug  in  the  soil,  the  French  names 
of  the  streets,  the  French  newspapers,  and  the  "  Creoles," 
or  inhabitants  of  French  descent,  all  bear  testimony  to 
the  work  of  the  pioneers  who  labored  with  such  zeal  in 
the  early  eighteenth  century  to  lay  broad  and  deep  the 
foundations  of  a  greater  France  in  America. 

From  the  base  at  New  Orleans,  the  French  began  to  work 
upward  along  the  Mississippi  to  meet  their  fellow  country 
men  who  were  building  posts  on  their  way  downward  from 
the  north.  Catholic  missionaries,  as  heroic  and  self-forget 
ful  as  any  preachers  of  the  gospel  the  world  had  ever 
seen,  penetrated  the  wilderness  in  every  direction,  and 
French  hunters  planted  post  after  post  around  the  Great 
Lakes  and  at  other  carefully  chosen  points  in  the  North 
west  territory.  In  1762  a  company  of  French  merchants 
was  granted  a  monopoly  of  the  trade  with  the  Indians  on 
the  Missouri  River,  and  two  years  later  they  founded  St. 
Louis,  building  on  its  present  site  a  house  and  four 
stores.  At  this  post  rich  stocks  of  furs  were  collected 
from  all  points  west  and  north  for  shipment  down  the  river 
and  to  Europe. 

II.  DIFFERENCES  BETWEEN  ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH 
POLICIES  OF  COLONIZATION 

Policies  of  the  French  Government.  —  Claiming  territory 
and  holding  it  by  actual  settlement  were,  however,  totally 
different  things.  In  the  management  of  its  American  colo- 


82  THE   HISTORY  OF   THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

nies  the  French  government  followed  certain  policies  which 
did  not  help  to  build  up  populous  dominions. 

1.  The    French   king,  who   was    a   Catholic,    would    not 
tolerate  any  Protestants  at  all  in  France  after   1685,  and 
yet  he  would  not  let  them  go  over  to  build  up  his  colonies 
in  America.     They  were  thus  compelled  to  suffer  persecution 
at  home,  to  become  Catholics,  or  to  flee  to  England  or  Prussia 
or  the  English  settlements  in  America. 

2.  The  colonization  of  New  France  was  carried  OIK  under 
the    strict   control   of  the  government.     The   French  king 
furnished  a  great  deal  of  money  for  the  expeditions  and  did 
not  rely  very  much  upon  his  enterprising  subjects. 

3.  The  Frenchmen  who  did  emigrate  to  the  New  World 
were  not  allowed  to  manage  their  own  affairs.     They  were 
compelled  in  all  things  to  obey  the  officers  sent  out  by  the 
king  and  to  observe  his  laws. 

4.  Even  if  the  government  of  the  French  colonies  had  been 
more  generous,  it  would  have  been  difficult  to  find  enough 
men  and  women  to  people  the  wilderness  at  that  time;  be 
cause,   almost  from  his    accession    to    the    throne    in    1643 
until  his  death  in  1715,  Louis  XIV  was  engaged  in  costly 
and  bloody  wars  on  the  continent,  trying  to  gain  more  lands 
for   himself   and    his    family.     Many    thousands    of   hardy 
French   peasants  who   might   have  built   a  greater   France 
beyond  the  seas  were  killed  in  battle  in  Spain,  Germany, 
Holland,  and  France. 

Policies  of  the  English  Government.  Greater  Independence 
in  Matters  of  Government.  —  England  was  full  of  turmoil  as  a 
result  of  the  conflict  between  the  king  and  Parliament,  which 
lasted  from  1629  (the  date  of  the  founding  of  the  Massa 
chusetts  Bay  Colony)  until  the  restoration  of  Charles  II 
in  1660.  With  so  much  trouble  at  home,  the  English  rulers 
had  little  time  to  look  abroad  for  more.  The  •  English 
colonies  were  therefore  subject  to  slight  interference  from 


THE   STRUGGLE   FOR   NORTH  AMERICA  83 

the  home  government.  In  every  colony  there  was  speedily 
set  up  a  little  parliament  or  legislature  to  make  laws  for 
the  community.  Although  by  no  means  all  the  adult 
white  males  were  allowed  to  vote  for  members  of  the 
legislature,  at  least  some  of  the  people  were  admitted  to 
a  share  in  their  own  government.  In  two  colonies,  Con 
necticut  and  Rhode  Island,  and  during  early  times  in 
Massachusetts,  the  voters  chose  even  their  own  governors 
as  well  as  their  legislatures. 

When,  however,  Charles  II  came  to  the  throne  in  1660, 
the  English  government  began  a  policy  very  much  like  that 
pursued  by  the  French  king  with  reference  to  his  domin 
ions.  Parliament  made  severe  laws  designed  to  control 
the  trade  and  navigation  of  the  colonies.  In  1686  a  stern 
governor,  Sir  Edmund  Andros,  was  sent  over  with  instruc 
tions  to  issue  orders  and  collect  taxes  in  several  northern 
colonies  without  the  consent  of  the  voters.  The  charter 
granted  to  Massachusetts  in  1629  was  taken  away  and  all 
New  England  was  governed  in  a  high-handed  manner. 

It  looked  as  if  more  trouble  was  coming  in  1685  when  James 
II,  who  was  a  Catholic  and  out  of  sympathy  with  the 
Protestant  colonies,  came  to  the  throne ;  but  he  was  soon 
driven  out  of  England  by  his  subjects  in  the  "  Glorious 
Revolution  "  of  1688.  In  1691  Massachusetts  received  a 
new  charter,  which  restored  the  .rights  that  Andros  had 
taker  away  except  that  of  electing  the  governor,  who  was 
henceforth  to  be  chosen  by  the  king.  The  colonists  soon 
drove  Andros  out  and  a  new  period  of  freedom  from  inter 
ference  by  the  British  government  opened. 

The  English  Colonists  Were  More  Tolerant  in  Religious 
Matters.  -  -  The  fact  that  companies  and  private  persons 
(proprietors)  had  so  large  a  share  in  settling  the  American 
colonies1  helped  to  increase  both  religious  toleration  and 
the  rate  of  immigration.  A  man  or  a  company  interested 


84  THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

in  making  a  large  profit  from  the  sale  of  lands  was  more 
likely  to  inquire  whether  a  settler  was  a  good  honest  laborer 
than  whether  he  was  a  Catholic  or  a  Protestant. 

Comparative  Strength  of  English  and  French.  —  For  all 
these  reasons,  at  the  end  of  one  hundred  fifty  years  of 
exploration  and  settlement  the  French  in  the  New  World 
numbered  fewer  than  one  hundred  thousand,  while  the 
English  numbered  considerably  more  than  a  million.  At 
home,  however,  France  had  three  times  the  population 
and  wealth  of  England  and  she  had  great  strength  on 
the  sea. 

Although  the  French  were  few  in  number  in  America 
they  had  certain  advantages  over  the  English  colonists. 
They  were  strongly  fortified  at  Quebec  and  several  other 
points,  so  that  numbers  alone  did  not  count  for  everything. 
They  had  also  made  allies  of  many  Indian  tribes  who 
promised  to  fight  on  their  side.  Finally,  they  were  accus 
tomed  to  obeying  royal  officers  without  question  and  did 
not  suffer  from  intercolonial  jealousies. 


III.  THE  STRUGGLE  BETWEEN  FRENCH  AND  ENGLISH 

The  Earlier  Intercolonial  Wars.  —  It  was  apparent  for  a 
long  time  that  a  final  contest  between  England  and  France 
for  world  empire  was  bound  to  come.  Two  wars,  King 
William's  (1689-97)  and  Queen  Anne's  (1701-13),  had  failed 
to  bring  a  final  settlement.  In  1716  the  English  began  to 
be  disturbed  about  French  doings  in  the  Ohio  region.  In 
that  year  the  governor  of  Virginia  wrote  home  to  his  king 
that  if  the  French  should  succeed  in  connecting  their  posts 
in  Canada  with  the  colony  of  Louisiana  "  they  might  even 
possess  themselves  of  any  of  these  plantations  they  pleased." 
Thirty  years  later,  King  George's  War  (1744-48)  failed  to 
make  the  great  decision.  The  only  important  permanent 


ENGLISH,  FRENCH,  AND  SPANISH  POSSESSIONS  IN  AMERICA,  1750 


THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  NORTH  AMERICA      85 

result  of  these  three  conflicts  was  the  capture  of  Port  Royal 
and  Acadia  by  the  English  in  Queen  Anne's  War.  Acadia 
was  renamed  Nova  Scotia  and  the  town  became  Annapolis. 

The  French  and  Indian  War  in  America  (1754-1763). 
Washington  s  Expedition  to  the  West.  — The  English  saw  that 
they  would  have  to  throw  more  energy  into  the  struggle 
if  they  expected  to  become  masters  of  the  Ohio  and  St.  Law 
rence  valleys.  Under  the  guidance  of  able  statesmen  at 
home,  the  French  were  steadily  building  forts  and  posts  for 
the  purpose  of  holding  the  territory.  They  were  fully  aware 
that  the  greater  France  was  at  stake  in  the  coming 
struggle.  All  this  served  only  to  stimulate  to  more  deter 
mined  action  the  English  empire  builders,  who  saw  clearly 
the  value  of  "  the  wildernesses  of  the  dark  country." 

In  1749,  the  year  after  the  close  of  King  George's  War, 
some  London  merchants  and  enterprising  Virginians  or 
ganized  the  "  Ohio  Company  "  with  a  view  to  holding  and 
settling  the  regions  beyond  the  Alleghanies.  Thereupon 
the  French  decided  to  keep  as  their  own,  by  force  of  arms 
if  necessary,  all  the  Ohio  Valley.  Hearing  of  the  advanc 
ing  French,  the  governor  of  Virginia,  in  1754,  sent  forward 
a  little  army  under  the  command  of  a  young  officer  —  George 
Washington  —  with  instructions  to  complete  and  defend 
a  post  called  Fort  Duquesne  on  the  site  of  the  present  city 
of  Pittsburgh. 

When  Washington  arrived  he  found  the  French  well 
entrenched.  The  Virginia  army  was  soon  compelled  to  fall 
back  to  Fort  Necessity  at  Great  Meadows,  and  then  to  sur 
render  to  superior  forces. 

Braddock's  Defeat  (7755). --The  final  war  with  France 
over  North  America  thus  opened  with  bad  luck  for  the 
English,  and  the  following  year  a  still  graver  disaster  over 
took  them.  In  1755  a  strong  force  of  regular  British  troops 
was  sent  over  from  Great  Britain  under  the  command  of 


86 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


General  Braddock.  These  troops,  accompanied  by  Wash 
ington  and  a  few  Virginia  soldiers,  set  out  to  capture  Fort 
Duquesne.  Despite  the  warnings  of  Washington,  who  knew 

how    the     French    arid 

Indians  fought  from  be 
hind  trees  and  rocks, 
picking  the  enemy  off 
one  by  one,  Braddock 
marched  into  the  wil 
derness  with  drums 
beating  and  banners  fly 
ing.  The  error  was 
fatal.  The  enemy  am 
bushed  his  soldiers  and 
almost  destroyed  the 
army.  Braddock  was 
mortally  wounded.  As 
he  was  being  borne  off 
the  field,  he  was  heard 
to  mutter  "  Who  would 
have  thought  it  "  and 
'  We  shall  know  better 
how  to  deal  with  them 
Nothing 


FORT  DUQUESNE  AND  VICINITY 

next    time. 

but  the  brave  and  skillful  management  of  Washington 
saved  the  retreating  soldiers  from  total  destruction.  It 
was  reported  to  the  British  government  that  Washington 
behaved  on  that  occasion  "  as  bravely  as  if  he  really  loved 
the  whistling  of  bullets." 

The  Seven  Years'  War  (1756-63). — The  following  year 
the  Seven  Years'  War  broke  out  in  Europe  and  soon 
encircled  the  globe.  England  and  Prussia  struggled  for 
supremacy  against  France,  Austria,  and  Spain.  Far  in 
the  East,  the  English  and  the  French  waged  war  for  the 


THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  NORTH  AMERICA      87 

possession  of  India ;  and  in  North  America  the  two  rival 
powers  began  the  last  act  in  the  dramatic  contest  for 
Canada  and  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Fortunately  for  Eng 
land  the  king's  chief  minister,  William  Pitt,  was  a  far- 
seeing  statesman.  He  had  dreams  of  a  world-wide  British 
empire  and  knew  that  it  could  be  won  only  by  men,  money, 
and  ships.  Instead  of  relying  mainly  upon  the  English  colo 
nists  in  America  to  dispose  of  the  French  in  that  quarter, 
he  dispatched  from  England  a  large  army  of  regular  soldiers 
with  orders  to  capture  all  the  French  strongholds.  With 
some  aid  from  the  Americans,  Pitt  was  able  to  accomplish 
his  grand  design.  In  a  little  while,  "  the  wind,  from  what 
ever  quarter  it  blew,  carried  to  England  the  tidings  of 
battles  won,  fortresses  taken,  provinces  added  to  the 
empire/' 

Wolfe  Captures  Quebec.  —  On  the  North  American  con 
tinent,  the  most  famous  of  the  victories  was  the  capture  of 
Quebec.  One  dark  night  in  September,  1759,  the  Eng 
lish  commander,  Wolfe,  with  a  strong  force  of  picked  men, 
slipped  along  the  water's  edge  in  small  boats  until  he  found 
a  good  landing  place  under  the  heights  of  the  French  city. 
In  single  file  the  men  silently  crept  up  the  steep  banks 
to  the  plains  before  Quebec.  In  the  morning  the  French 
general,  Montcalm,  whom  Wolfe  had  described  in  a  letter  to 
his  mother  as  "  a  wary  old  fellow,"  was  astounded  to  see 
British  soldiers  marching  in  full  array  upon  him.  His 
men  accepted  battle  with  courage,  but  by  nightfall  they 
were  utterly  routed,  and  their  leader  lay  mortally  wounded. 

When  told  by  his  surgeons  that  death  was  only  a  few  hours 
away,  Montcalm  replied  that  he  was  glad  of  it,  adding, 
"  I  am  happy  I  shall  not  live  to  see  the  surrender  of  Quebec." 
There  was  a  sadness  also  in  the  English  victory,  for  their 
commander,  too,  was  mortally  hurt.  Hearing  that  the 
French  were  running  from  the  field  of  battle,  Wolfe  gave 


88 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


final  orders  to  cut  off  their  retreat  and  then  turned  on  his 
side,  saying,  "  Now,  God  be  praised  !  I  shall  die  in  peace." 
Other  men  took  up  the  work  which  Wolfe  had  so  skillfully 
begun.  The  following  year  Montreal  fell  before  English 


From  a  print  of  the  time, 

In  the  morning  the  French  General  was  astounded  to  see  British  soldiers  marching  in 
full  array  on  the  Plains  of  Abraham 

forces.     The  fate  of  Canada  was  sealed.     New  France  was 
a  part  of  the  British  Empire. 

The  Treaty  of  Paris;  Results  of  the  War.  —  Peace  was 
at  length  reached  in  Europe.  By  the  terms  of  the  Treaty 
of  Paris,  1763,  momentous  changes  were  made  in  the  fate 
of  North  America.  Briefly  the  terms  were : 

1.  England  wrested  from  France  all  of  Canada  and  the 
territory  east  of  the  Mississippi  except  a  small  region  around 
New  Orleans,  leaving  her  only  two  small  islands  off  the  coast 
of  Newfoundland  where  her  fishermen  could  dry  their  fish. 

2.  England  took  from  Spain  the  territory  of  Florida. 

3.  For  the  loss  of  this   province,    Spain   received    some 


1W  140-  I'Xr       100' 


120"  Long 


EUROPEAN  POSSESSIONS  IN  AMERICA,  1763,  WITH  BRITISH  POSSESSIONS  BEFORE 
THAT  DATE  INDICATED 


89 


90          THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

consolation,  because  France  granted  her  all  that  was  left  of 
the  vast  Louisiana  territory.  In  a  little  while  the  Spanish 
flag  was  flying  over  New  Orleans. 

Effects  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris  on  the  English  Colonies.  - 
For  the  English  colonies  in  America,  the  Treaty  of  Paris 
was  full  of  meaning.  The  control  of  the  French  king 
being  broken,  religious  toleration  could  be  established  in 
Canada  and  the  country  opened  up  to  Protestant  settlers 
and  explorers.  The  alliances  between  the  French  and  the 
Indians  being  at  an  end,  the  latter  were  more  careful  about 
raiding  English  settlements  on  the  western  frontier.  It  be 
came  safer  for  the  English  pioneers  from  the  seaboard  to 
push  over  into  the  fertile  regions  of  the  Ohio. 

Thus  the  Treaty  of  Paris  prepared  the  way  for  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  English-speaking  people  on  the  continent  of 
North  America;  but  this  was  not  all.  There  was  a  still 
deeper  meaning  in  the  treaty.  This  was  grasped  by  a 
wise  Frenchman,  Vergennes,  who,  on  hearing  of  the  down 
fall  of  New  France,  exclaimed  : 
• 

England  will  ere  long  repent  of  having  removed  the  only  check 
that  could  keep  her  colonies  in  awe.  They  no  longer  stand  in 
need  of  her  protection;  she  will  call  upon  them  to  contribute 
towards  supporting  the  burdens  they  have  helped  to  bring  on 
her;  and  they  will  answer  by  striking  off  all  dependence. 


IV.  THE  SPANIARDS  IN  LOUISIANA  AND  THE  SOUTHWEST; 
THE  RUSSIANS  IN  THE  NORTHWEST 

Spanish  Rule  in  the  Louisiana  Territory.  -  -  The  Seven 
Years'  War  decided  the  fate  of  all  North  America  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  The  future  of  the  western  Louisiana  ter 
ritory  and  of  the  southern  and  western  regions  now  occupied 
by  Texas,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  the  Pacific  states, 
was  yet  unsettled.  Nominally  most  of  that  country  be- 


THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  NORTH  AMERICA      91 

longed  to  Spain  in  1763,  but  Spain  did  little  to  occupy  it. 
Spanish  officers  took  the  place  of  the  French  officers  in  the 
Louisiana  trading  posts  and  the  seat  of  government  was 
fixed  at  Mexico  City.  New  Orleans  was  connected  by  a 
canal  with  Lake  Pontchartrain  ;  the  streets  of  the  city  were 
drained,  watchmen  were  installed ;  and  the  cultivation  of 
sugar  cane  in  the  surrounding  country  was  revived.  Yet 
the  population  remained  almost  stationary. 

St.  Louis  alone  grew,  slowly,  under  Spanish  rule.  Many 
French  from  the  Illinois  country  went  across  the  Mississippi 
River  when  the  English  took  possession  of  their  former 
territory.  Some  of  these  pioneers  carried  on  a  considerable 
fur  trade ;  others  worked  the  lead  mines  of  Missouri ;  but 
most  of  them  settled  down  to  till  the  fertile  fields.  The 
Spanish  officers,  knowing  that  there  were  no  more  Mexicos 
and  Perus  to  conquer  in  the  Southwest,  became  reconciled  to 
a  humdrum  life  in  the  forts  along  the  Mississippi. 

Spanish  Priests  and  Settlers  in  the  Southwest. —  Spanish 
soldiers  also  found  little  that  interested  them  in  the  great 
regions  now  embraced  in  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Colorado, 
and  California  ;  but  the  Spanish  priests  found  religious  work 
to  do.  At  a  time  much  earlier  than  this,  they  had  seen  an 
opportunity  to  bring  thousands  of  heathen  Indians  to 
the  Christian  faith.  *  So  they  had  journeyed  in  eve  / 
direction,  preaching  the  gospel  and  building  missions  in 
the  wildernesses.  By  1630  the  Spanish  priests  had  built 
ninety  churches  and  baptized  86,000  Indians  in  the  far 
Southwest.  When  they  established  a  mission  they  usually 
brought  soldiers  to  defend  it  and  compelled  the  converted 
Indians  to  do  the  rough  work  in  the  fields.  The  Spaniards, 
who  were  familiar  with  irrigation  and  crops,  showed  the 
Indians  how  to  improve  their  farms.  They  also  taught  the 
natives  how  to  paint  frescoes  and  to  do  wrought  work  in 
silver  and  iron. 


92 


THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


Why  the  Spaniards  Failed  to  Colonize  the  Southwest 
Successfully.  -  -  The  Spaniards  who  followed  in  the  wake  of 
the  priests  were  not  industrial  workers,  farmers,  carpenters, 
and  artisans.  They  were  the  descendants  of  the  men  who 
had  despoiled  Mexico  and  Peru  of  their  treasures  and  they 
had  no  bent  for  hard  or  steady  labor.  These  pleasure- 


PALACE  OF  THE  SPANISH  GOVERNOR  AT  SANTA  FE" 

loving,  idle  soldiers  became  owners  of  vast  stretches  of  land 
which  they  had  no  inclination  to  till  or  develop. 

Some  of  the  Spanish  governors  sought  to  build  up  popu 
lous  colonies.  They  knew  .that  a  few  soldiers  and  priests 
could  not  create  a  nation  ;  but  there  were  grave  obstacles 
in  the  way  of  settling  this  vast  domain.  The  region  was 
too  distant  from  the  mother  country,  and  there  were  no 
religious  disputes  in  Spain  such  as  drove  the  Puritans  from 
England  and  the  Protestants  from  France.  Moreover, 
though  there  was  much  fertile  land  in  California  and  Texas, 
a  great  deal  of  the  Southwest  was  desert  or  mountainous 
waste.  The  Colorado  desert,  the  arid  plateaus  of  New 


THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  NORTH  AMERICA      93 

Mexico  and  Arizona,  the  dry  regions  of  Texas,  were  not  in 
viting  to  Spanish  grandees  or  Spanish  peasants.  They 
preferred  to  stay  at  home. 

Weakness  of  the  Spanish  Settlements.  —  By  the  year  1800 
there  were  only  about  18,000  white  settlers  in  the  former  Span 
ish  regions  which  are  now  included  within  the  borders  of  the 
United  States.  Santa  Fe,  New  Mexico,  founded  in  1605  ; 
San  Antonio,  Texas,  in  1718  ;  San  Diego,  California,  in  1769 ; 
and  San  Francisco,  in  1776,  were  petty  villages.  At  many 
other  points  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  north  and  west  to  the 
Pacific,  there  were  Spanish  missions  and  trading  posts. 
Some  Spanish  trading  ships  occasionally  skirted  along  the 
shores  of  California,  bringing  supplies  to  the  missions  and 
carrying  away  in  exchange  flour,  silver,  furs,  and  other 
products  gathered  by  the  settlers  and  the  Indians. 

The  Russians  in  the  Northwest.  —  Although  it  seemed 
far  away  from  the  rest  of  the  world  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  the  Spaniards  were  not  alone  in  their  interest  in 
the  Pacific  coast.  The  Russians  came  along  very  early. 
Exploring  expeditions  were  sent  out  by  Peter  the  Great, 
who  had  heard  the  Europeans  talk  about  the  New  World. 
As  the  result  of  a  voyage  made  in  1728,  Vitus  Bering,  a 
Dane  in  the  employ  of  Peter,  gave  his  name  to  the  straits 
separating  North  America  and  Asia. 

Russian  fur  traders  were  active  all  through  the  eighteenth 
century  and,  in  addition  to  crufsing  along  the  Pacific  coast, 
they  penetrated  inland  a  considerable  distance.  The 
otter  herds  of  the  North  Pacific  became  almost  as  valuable 
to  the  Russians  as  the  gold  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru  were 
to  the  Spaniards.  They  built  a  fort  at  Sitka,  Alaska.  Being 
unable  to  grow  grain  there,  they  insisted  on  getting  provi 
sions  from  the  Spanish  settlements  in  California,  although  it 
was  against  the  law  of  Spain.  When  the  news  of  the  Rus 
sian  operations  reached  the  British,  they,  too,  began  to 


94  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

\renture  into  the  Pacific  regions,  looking  for  a  share  of  the 
fur  trade  which  was  making  great  fortunes.  So  it  happened 
that  even  before  the  American  Revolution,  enterprising 
people  were  beginning  to  think  about  contesting  with  Spain 
for  the  possession  of  the  Far  West.  It  was  a  long  time, 
however,  before  the  Pacific  coast  was  destined  to  come 
under  the  rule  of  the  English-speaking  people,  and  it  was 
not  until  1867  that  Alaska  was  purchased  from  Russia  by 
the  United  States. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.    On  a  large  map  of  North  America  (a  relief-map,  if  one  is 
available)  locate  the  principal  English  settlements  and  the  early 
French  posts  and  settlements.       2.    Trace  on   the  map  the  route 
that  the  French  explorers  would  take  to  reach  the  interior  of  the 
continent.       3.    When   the   French   explorers  reached   the  Great 
Lakes  in  their  canoes,  what  routes  could  they  take  to  get  to  the 
Mississippi  ?      4.    Look  now  for  the  routes  that  explorers    from 
the  English   settlements  would  have  had  to  follow  to  reach  the 
Mississippi  Valley.     Contrast  the  difficulties  of  these  routes  with 
the  difficulties  of  the  French  route. 

II.  I.    What  conditions  in  Europe  combined  with  the  geography 
of  the  regions  settled  in  America  to  make  the  French  and  English 
colonies  quite  different  ?     What    reasons  led  to  the  fact  that  the 
English  colonists  were  more  independent  of  the  mother  country 
than  were  the  French  colonists  ? 

III.  i.    Name  the  four  intercolonial  wars  in  their  order.    Count 
ing  the  four  wars  and  the  intervening  years   as  marking  a  long 
struggle  for  supremacy  in  America,  how  many  years  did  this  strug 
gle  cover  ?      2.    How  old  was  Washington  when  he  first  gained 
prominence  in  the  French   and   Indian  War?      3.    What  war  in 
Europe  was  going  on  during  the  French  and  Indian  War  in  Amer 
ica  ?     What  part  did  Spain  take  in  it  ?      4.    Why  was  the  present 
site  of  Pittsburgh  an  important  point  in  the  struggle  of  France 
and  England  for  supremacy  in  America?      5.    State  the  principal 
provisions  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris. 

IV.  I.    State  the  reasons  for  the  lack  of  success  in  the  Spanish 
government  of  the   region   now  comprising  California  and   the 


THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  NORTH  AMERICA      95 

southwestern  states  of  the  American  union.  How  far  did  Spain 
progress  in  her  period  of  ownership  ?  2.  What  led  the  Russians 
to  establish  settlements  in  the  region  now  known  as  Alaska  ? 

Review:  With  what  important  events  or  achievements  is  each 
of  the  following  names  to  be  associated  : 

Marquette  Washington 

La  Salle  Braddock 

D'Iberville  Wolfe 

Andros  Montcalm 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Champlain  has  been  called  the  "Father  of  New  France." 
Find  out  what  he  did  to  merit  this  title. 

See  McMurry's  "Pioneers  on  Land  and  Sea,"  ch.  i;  Tappan's 
"American  Hero  Stories,"  pp.  49-58;  Hart's  "Source  Book," 
pp.  14-17;  Southworth's  "Builders  of  Our  Country,"  pp.  153- 
160;  Baldwin's  "Discovery  of  the  Old  Northwest,"  pp.  22-34; 
Parkman's  "Struggle  for  a  Continent,"  pp.  83-124. 

2.  Imagine    yourself    an    explorer    with    either    Marquette    or 
La  Salle.     Be  ready  to  give  the  class   an   interesting   account  of 
your  explorations  or  of  some  important  part  of  them  and  to  trace 
the  journeys  on  a  map. 

See  McMurry's  "Pioneers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,"  chs.  i,  ii ; 
Hart's  "Source  Book,"  pp.  96-98;  Baldwin's  "The  Discovery  of 
the  Old  Northwest,"  pp.  131-180;  Parkman's  "Struggle  for  a 
Continent,"  pp.  186-222;  Hasbrouck's  "La  Salle." 

3.  Several  French  posts  and  settlements  about  the  Great  Lakes 
and  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  were  important  during  the  inter 
colonial  wars  and  afterward.     Locate  the  following  and  tell  why, 
from  its  position,  each  would  be  likely  to  be  important :  Detroit, 
Mackinac    Island,    Vincennes    (in    what    is    now    Indiana),   Fort 
Kaskaskia  (now  Utica,  near  La  Salle,  Illinois). 

4.  Tell  the  story  of  Braddock's  defeat  and  the  story  of  the 
capture  of  Quebec. 

See  Hart's  "Source  Book,"  pp.  103-107;  Hart's  "Camps  and 
Firesides  of  the  Revolution,"  pp.  138-141;  146-150;  Tappan's 
"American  Hero  Stones,"  pp.  117-135  ;  Parkman's  "  Struggle  for 
a  Continent,"  pp.  382-450. 


96          THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

OUTLINE  FOR  REVIEW  OF  THE  PERIODS  OF  EXPLORATION,  SETTLE 
MENT,  AND  COLONIZATION  (CHAPTERS  I,  II,  III,  IV,  V) 

I.   The  Old-World  background. 

A.  Our  debt  to  the  Old  World. 

B.  Conditions  in  Europe  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

1.  Differences  between  eastern  and  western  Europe. 

2.  Social  classes  in  Europe:   peasants;   artisans;  traders 

and  merchants ;   the  clergy;   nobles;   kings. 

3.  Development  of  trade;  sea-route  to  Asia. 

II.    Early  explorations  and  conquests. 

A.  The  explorations  of  the  Italians  and  the  Portuguese. 

B.  Columbus,  Da  Garna,  Vespucci,  Balboa,  and  Magellan. 

C.  Spanish  conquests  in  North  and  South  America. 

D.  Early  French  explorations. 

E.  Early  English  explorations. 

F.  The  conflict  between  England  and  Spain. 

III.    The  settlement  and  development  of  the  colonies. 

A.  European  conditions  which  led  to  American  colonization. 

1.  Religious  changes. 

2.  The  cruel  treatment  of  the  peasants. 

3.  The  development  of  the  art  of  printing. 

4.  The  new  supply  of  gold  from  the  Spanish  possessions. 

B.  The  English  colonies. 

1.  The  colonies  first  settled  by  English  immigrants. 

a.  Virginia. 

b.  The  New  England  colonies :    Plymouth ;    Massa 

chusetts  Bay;   Connecticut;  New  Hampshire. 

c.  Maryland;  Pennsylvania;  the  Carolinas  ;  Georgia. 

2.  Other    settlements    that    became    English    colonies : 

New  York ;  New  Jersey ;   Delaware. 

3.  Types  of  settlers  in  the  English  colonies. 
a.    Immigrants  seeking  religious  freedom. 
b'.    Immigrants  seeking  relief  from  poverty. 

c.  Involuntary  immigrants  —  slaves  and  criminals. 

d.  Bond  servants. 


OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW 


97 


C.  The  French  settlements  and  colonies. 

1 .  The  settlements  at  Quebec,  New  Orleans,  and  St.  Louis. 

D.  The  struggle   between  the  French   and  the  English  for 

the  control  of  the  continent. 

'i.    Differences  between  the  French  and   English  colonial 
policies. 

2.  The  three  early  colonial  wars. 

3.  The  final  struggle:    the  French  and  Indian   War  in 

America ;  the  Seven  Years'  War  in  Europe. 

4.  The  Treaty  of  Paris  and  its  results. 

E.  The  Spanish  colonies  in  Louisiana  and  the  Southwest. 

F.  Russian  settlements  in  the  Northwest. 

IV.    Important  names  which  should  be  remembered  in  connection 
with  one  or  more  of  the  above  topics  : 

Explorers:  Columbus,  Da  Gama,  Magellan,  Balboa,  De  Soto, 
Coronado,  Verrazano,  Cartier,  Champlain,  Marquette,  La  Salle, 
Hudson,  Cabot,  Raleigh. 

Colonial  Pioneers :  John  Smith,  William  Bradford,  John  Endi- 
cott,  Roger  Williams,  Thomas  Hooker. 

Proprietors  and  Governors :  Penn,  Baltimore,  Berkeley,  Carteret, 
Lord  de  la  Ware,  Oglethorpe,  Stuyvesant,  Sir  Edmund  Andros. 

Soldiers:  Standish,  Washington,  Braddock,  Wolfe,  Montcalm. 

Important    dates:     1492;     1497;     1498;     1519-22;    1588;    1607; 
1619;   1620;   1754;   1763. 

British  sovereigns  during  the  periods  of  exploration,  settlement, 
and  colonization  : 

Henry  VII,  1485-1509  Charles  II,  1660-1685 

Henry  VIII,  1509-1547  James  II,  1685-1688 

Edward  VI,  1547-1553  William  and  Mary,  1689-1694 

Mary,  1553-1558  William  III,  1694-1702 

Elizabeth,  1558-1603  Anne,  1702-1714 

James  I,  1603-1625  George  I,  1714-1727 

Charles  I,  1625-1649  George  II,  1727-1760 
Puritan  Revolution  and  Crom-     George  III,  1760-1820 
well,  1649-1660 


CHAPTER  VI 

LIFE,  LABOR,  AND  LIBERTY  IN  AMERICA  ON  THE  EVE 
OF  THE   REVOLUTION 

Never  were  the  hopes  of  English  statesmen  higher  than 
on  the  loth  day  of  February,  1763,  when  the  treaty  which 
brought  the  French  and  Indian  War  to  an  end  was  duly 
ratified  and  sealed.  "  England  never  signed  such  a  peace 
before,"  exclaimed  George  III.  '  The  country  never  saw 
so  glorious  a  war  or  so  honorable  a  peare,"  declared  one  of 
his  great  ministers.  "The  treaty/'  wrote  another,  "  main 
tains  the  maritime  power,  the  interests,  the  security,  the 
tranquillity,  and  the  honor  of  England." 

Well  might  they  rejoice.  Spain  had  been  humbled ; 
France  had  been  humbled  ;  from  the  Ganges  River  to  the 
Mississippi  the  British  flag  floated  proudly  over  the  empire 
of  which  Pitt  had  dreamed.  Nothing  remained  but  to 
weld  these  wide-flung  dominions  into  closer  union  with  the 
mother  country,  and  to  strengthen  them  by  the  army  and 
navy  against  the  renewed  pretensions  of  the  Spanish  anc 
the  French.  The  task  was  inviting  to  patriotic  Englishmen 
and  nothing  seemed  easier;  but  they  had  not  reckoned 
with  the  people  of  the  North  American  colonies. 

I.   THE  PEOPLE  AND  THEIR  OCCUPATION^  .  FARMING 

The  Spirit  of  Freedom  and  Self -Reliance.  —  From  tiny  settle 
ments  along  the  Atlantic  coast  there  had  sprung  a  nation. 
The  majority  of  white  men  were  not  servile  tenants,  tilling 

98 


LIFE,   LABOR,   AND  LIBERTY   IN  AMERICA  99 

the  soil  of  feudal  lords  who  in  turn  bowed  to  kingly  power. 
They  owned  the  ground  they  plowed  and  were  proud  of 
their  freedom  and  independence.  Those  who  were  not 
landholders  could  look  forward  with  confidence  to  acquir 
ing  homesteads  of  their  own. 

Moreover,  not  all  the  people  were  inexperienced  in  the 
art  of  government.  In  every  colony  there  was  an  assembly 
of  representatives,  chosen  by  men  of  property  and  ready 
to  champion  popular  interests  as  against  royal  interference. 

Far  and  wide  American  merchants  were  building  up  trade, 
collecting  the  products  of  American  farms,  plantations,  and 
forges,  and  exchanging  them  for  the  manufactures  of  Eng 
land  and  the  continent.  In  the  shipyards  of  New  England 
could  be  heard  the  ringing  saw  and  hammer  as  swift  sailing 
vessels  were  being  built  to  range  the  seas  in  search  of  trade. 
A  people  so  living  and  laboring,  so  full  of  industry  and 
enterprise,  were  prepared  to  state  the  terms  on  which  they 
would  be  welded  into  a  closer  union  with  the  British  empire. 

The  Population  of  the  Colonies.  -  -  There  were  in  all 
about  three  million  people  in  the  colonies  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolution  —  not  many,  as  measured  by  our  modern 
standards,  but  more  than  a  third  of  the  population  of  Eng 
land.  Moreover,  they  were  somewhat  compactly  settled 
along  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  Certainly  a  great  majority 
of  them  lived  within  fifty  or  sixty  miles  of  the  coast. 

At  a  few  points  the  frontier  line  had  been  pushed  farther 
inland.  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  Dela 
ware,  New  Jersey,  and  Maryland  had  been  explored,  laid 
out,  and  sparsely  populated  up  almost  to  their  present 
boundaries.  In  New  York,  settlements  had  spread  up  the 
Hudson  Valley  beyond  Albany,  which  had  become  an  im 
portant  town,  and  posts  had  been  planted  as  far  westward 
as  Schenectady  and  Little  Falls.  The  frontier  line  of  Penn 
sylvania  did  not  extend  far  beyond  Harrisburg,  although 


100        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

there  was  a  little  village  of  two  or  three  hundred  inhabit 
ants  at  Pittsburgh. 

The  Virginians,  on  the  other  hand,  had  been  very  active 
in  taking  up  the  western  lands,  for  they  had  pushed  up  the 
river  valleys  to  the  foothills  of  the  Appalachians.  Scotch- 
Irish  and  Pennsylvania  Germans  had  occupied  the  fertile 
Shenandoah  Valley  in  great  numbers.  Still  bolder  pioneers 
had  dared  to  brave  the  wilderness  and  the  Indians  of  Ten 
nessee  and  Kentucky.  As  early  as  1769,  that  mighty 
hunter,  Daniel  Boone,  accompanied  by  a  few  friends,  had 
gone  from  his  home  in  North  Carolina  through  Cumberland 
Gap  into  the  Blue  Grass  regions  of  Kentucky  and  had 
brought  back  news  of  a  wonderful  country  beyond  the 
mountains.  In  North  and  South  Carolina  and  Georgia, 
the  settlers  had  clung  to  the  coast  more  closely  than  their 
neighbors  in  Virginia ;  but  the  thin  frontier  line  was  slowly 
advancing  into  the  uplands,  and  there  were  well-settled 
counties  in  the  western  regions  of  the  Carolinas. 

Farming  the  Principal  Occupation.  --  First  of  all  it  should  be 
remembered  that  the  foundation  of  American  self-reliance 
was  in  the  cheap  land  and  the  system  of  small  farms  owned 
outright.  Nine  tenths  of  the  people  got  their  living  from 
the  soil.  The  farmers  and  their  families  produced  nearly 
all  they  needed.  Foodstuffs  came  from  the  fields,  or  the 
neighboring  forests  and  streams.  Hewn  logs  furnished  the 
building  materials,  and  houses  and  barns  were  cheaply  and 
quickly  built  by  the  cooperation  of  neighbors,  the  settlers 
helping  one  another  by  "  swapping  work  "  as  it  was  called. 
Grain  was  ground  by  mills  driven  by  hand  or  water  power. 
Tea,  coffee,  sugar,  and  salt  were  the  only  foodstuffs  bought 
at  towns.  Even  sugar  was  made  from  maple  syrup  in  the 
North,  and  salt  was  obtained  from  sea  water.  Hardware 
and  implements  had  to  be  bought,  but  forges  sprang  up  all 
over  the  country  to  supply  this  demand. 


LIFE,  LABOR,  AND  LIBERTY  W  AMERICA         \&i 

By  hard  labor,  men,  women,  and  children  could  secure 
the  means  of  livelihood  and  live  in  security  and  in 
dependence.  A  young  married  couple  needed  only  a  little 
cash  to  make  a  payment  on  some  land,  and  in  addition,  as 
a  writer  of  that  time  remarked,  "  a  gun,  some  powder  and 
shot,  a  few  tools,  and  a  plow."  Many  even  refused  to 
pay  for  land,  and,  plunging  into  the  wilderness,  bought  it 
from  the  Indians  or  seized  it  in  defiance  of  the  law. 

The  Meaning  of  Land-Ownership.  -  -  This  employment  of 
the  masses  on  the  land  had  a  deep  meaning  for  the  future 


Houses  and  barns  were  cheaply  and  quickly  built  by  the  cooperation  of  neighbors. 

of  America.  The  peasants  of  Europe  were  also  engaged 
in  tilling  the  soil ;  but  under  conditions  of  life  far  different 
from  those  of  the  American  farmer.  They  were,  as  we 
have  seen,  either  serfs,  bound  to  obey  and  pay  the  lord  of 
the  land,  or  agricultural  laborers  working  for  wages.  Very 
few  of  them  owned  outright  the  fields  they  tilled.  It  was 
otherwise  in  the  colonies.  It  is  true  that  there  were  slaves 
on  the  southern  plantations,  tenants  on  the  estates  along 
the  Hudson  River,  and  bond  servants  in  many  colonies ; 


102       ~  THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

but  nowhere  in  the  world  had  as  large  a  proportion  of  the 
tillers  of  the  soil  been  free,  home-owning  farmers. 

The  founders  of  Massachusetts  gave  every  "  adventurer" 
who  went  to  the  colony  fifty  acres.  This  practice  of  giving 
small  plots  outright  to  settlers  was  common  in  New  England 
and  stimulated  immigration  to  that  section.  In  New 
York  the  landed  aristocracy  owned  vast  estates,  which  had 
been  founded  in  Dutch  times,  or  later  by  English  royal  grant. 
This  land  monopoly  checked  the  spread  of  settlement  until 
after  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  Mohawk 
Valley  was  opened  on  the  principle  of  granting  land  in  small 
lots  to  owners  and  farmers.  In  Pennsylvania,  William 
Penn  tried  to  establish  a  system  of  large  land-owners  by 
selling  five-thousand-acre  estates  at  a  lump  sum  and  then 
demanding  a  perpetual  rent.  It  was  difficult,  however,  to 
secure  tenants,  and  so  Penn  and  the  purchasers  of  large  es 
tates  were  forced  to  sell  in  small  lots  to  freemen  or  to  bond 
servants  whose  terms  had  expired. 

In  the  southern  colonies,  although  the  system  of  great  es 
tates  prevailed  along  the  coasts,  the  broken  upland  regions, 
where  slavery  was  not  profitable,  were  settled  by  farmers 
who  bought  plots  outright  at  small  sums. 

There  was  more  or  less  competition  among  the  colonies 
for  settlers.  The  first  governor  of  New  Jersey  offered  to 
every  man  who  had  a  musket,  ammunition,  and  six  months' 
provisions,  at  least  one  hundred  fifty  acres  with  an  addi 
tional  grant  for  each  servant  or  slave. 

Land-Owning  and  Liberty.  --It  was  these  land-owning 
citizens,  "  the  embattled  farmers,"  who  made  possible  the 
American  Revolution.  As  Jefferson  said,  the  man  who  owns 
his  own  land  and  looks  to  the  sun  in  heaven  and  to  the 
labor  of  his  hands  for  his  sustenance,  can  have  the  spirit 
of  independence  which  is  the  life  breath  of  republics. 

It  was  in  the  homes  of  these  free  farmers  that  the  men 


LIFE,   LABOR,   AND  LIBERTY   IN  AMERICA         103 

came  to  have  the  courage  to  defy  kings  and  aristocrats. 
They  had  to  bow  before  no  lords.  They  paid  tribute  to 
no  barons  of  the  soil.  They  loved  the  fields  they  owned 
and  tilled  and  were  determined  to  keep  the  produce  of  their 
labor.  The  man  with  the  hoe,  bowed  by  the  weight  of 
centuries,  straightened  up  his  shoulders,  bared  his  head  to 
the  sun,  drew  deep  the  breath  of  liber  y,  and  listened 
kindly  to  those  who  said  that  kings  were  enemies  of  human 
freedom. 

If  it  is  true  that  the  merchants  started  _^e  American 
Revolution,  it  must  be  said  that  the  farmers  finished  it. 
With  their  muskets  in  hand  they  went,  to  the  front,  while 
their  wives  and  children,  accustomed  to  labor  and  independ 
ence,  managed  the  farms,  molded  bullets,  wove  cloth,  and 
prepared  supplies.  Such  is  the  story  of  the  land.  More 
than  once  in  our  history  we  shall  have  f>  come  back  to  it. 


II.   MANUFACTURING,  SHIPBUILDING,  AND  COMMERCE  ;  THE 
CITIES  ;  TRAVEL 

The  Beginnings  of  Manufacturing. -- Busy  as  were  the 
people  with  clearing  and  tilling  the  soil,  they  by  no  means 
neglected  manufacturing,  even  though  their  achievements 
seem  small  to  us  in  this  day  of  huge  industries.  Every 
staple  trade  in  the  United  States  had  its  beginnings  before 
the  Revolution.  Hemp,  flax,  cotton,  and  wool  were  raised 
in  abundance,  and  the  textile  business  had  a  good  start 
before  1776.  The  Scotch-Irish  in  New  Hampshire  and  in 
the  southern  colonies  made  fine  linens.  Cotton  spinning  and 
weaving  kept  pace  with  other  industries.  There  were  no  great 
mill-towns,  however,  such  as  we  now  find  in  Massachusetts 
or  South  Carolina.  The  textile  industry  was  scattered 
throughout  the  country  among  the  homes  of  the  people  and 
was  carried  on  chiefly  by  the  women. 


104        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

Manufacturing  in  the  Home.  —  Although  it  is  customary 
in  our  time  to  call  attention  to  the  large  number  of  women 
and  children  employed  in  industries,  it  is  important  to  re 
member  that  they  have  always  borne  their  full  share  of  the 
burden.  In  colonial  times,  practically  all  of  the  coarse  cloth 
was  made  by  them  on  the  home-made  spinning  wheel  and 
loom,  while  only  the  finer  fabrics  were  imported. 

So  extensive  had  the  domestic  industry  become  by  the 
opening  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  the  royal  governor 
of  New  York  found  in  it  the  germs  of  independence.  He 
said  : 

The  consequence  will  be  that  if  they  can  cloath  themselves 
once,  not  only  comfortably  but  handsomely  too,  without  the 
help  of  England,  they  who  are  already  not  very  fond  of  submitting 
to  Government  would  soon  think  of  putting  in  Execution  designs 
they  had  long  harboured  in  their  breasts.  This  will  not  seem 
strange  when  you  consider  what  sort  of  people  this  Country  is 
inhabited  by. 

Parliament  then  passed  the  Woolen  Act,  prohibiting  the 
exportation  of  woolen  goods  from  the  colonies  and  even  from 
one  colony  to  another  for  sale,  and  so  prolonged  for  more 
than  half  a  century  the  hold  of  English  merchants  on 
American  trade. 

The  Iron  Industry. —  -The  iron  industry  also  had  a"  fair 
start  before  the  Revolution.  It  seems  that  every  colony 
except  Georgia  had  its  iron  works.  Furnaces  for  smelting, 
foundries,  rolling  mills,  nail  and  wire  mills,  and  factories  for 
metallic  wares,  chains,  anchors,  pig  iron,  and  bar  iron 
could  be  found  within  a  reasonable  distance  of  almost  any 
farming  section.  Even  some  export  trade  had  developed, 
in  spite  of  the  laws  made  by  the  British  government  to 
keep  down  the  iron  industry  in  America. 

Shipbuilding.  —  Of  all  the  more  specialized  industries  in 
the  colonies,  shipbuilding  was  by  far  the  most  important. 


LIFE,  LABOR,  AND  LIBERTY  IN  AMERICA          105 

It  is  said  that  the  first  ship  built  in  America  was  constructed 
at  Manhattan  by  Captain  Block  early  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  Certainly  by  the  middle  of  that  century  ship 
yards  were  scattered  all  along  the  coast  of  New  England, 
wherever  there  were  good  harbors.  Within  a  few  years 
New  York  had  become  a  prominent  shipping  center,  and 
shipbuilding  occupied  several  hundred  men  along  the 
Hudson  as  far  north  as  Poughkeepsie  and  Albany.  At  the 
time  of  the  Revolution,  however,  the  ports  of  Massachusetts 
led  all  the  rest  in  this  industry.  Though  the  southern  col 
onies  built  many  vessels,  they  were  better  known  for  the 
production  of  ship  materials,  "naval  stores,"  hemp,  tar, 
cedar,  and  fir,  than  for  actual  shipbuilding. 

The  total  output  of  vessels  in  all  the  colonies  in  1769  did 
not  equal  the  tonnage  of  a  small  modern  ocean  liner.  And 
yet  it  gave  the  colonists  a  taste  of  power.  They  knew  that 
they  had  an  abundance  of  ship  materials.  They  had  learned 
to  range  the  seas  in  search  of  profitable  trade.  Like  the 
fledgling  bird  just  from  the  nest,  they  had  tried  their  wings 
and  were  delighted  at  their  strength. 

The  Merchants  and  Traders.  -  -  Trade  and  transportation 
soon  followed  the  growth  of  agriculture  and  industry,  and 
on  favorable  harbors  little  cities  grew  up.  Tobacco,  rice, 
and  ship  materials  from  the  southern  states,  lumber,  grain, 
and  salt  pork  from  the  middle  colonies,  and  flour,  salted 
fish,  rum,  and  shoes  from  New  England  had  to  be  carried  to 
markets  in  the  West  Indies  or  Great  Britain  or  Europe, 
and  the  finer  imported  stuffs  brought  back  for  distri 
bution  among  the  colonists.  Tons  of  salt  fish,  especially 
cod,  were  taken  every  month  to  France  and  Spain.  New 
England  products  were  shipped  to  the  West  Indies  and  ex 
changed  for  sugar,  molasses,  and  dyestufFs ;  the  molasses 
was  made  into  rum ;  and  the  rum  was  carried  to  the  coasts 
of  Africa  where  it  was  exchanged  for  slaves,  who  were  in 


106        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN    PEOPLE 

turn  taken  to  the  southern  planters  and  to  the  West  Indies. 
All  this  meant  a  growing  class  of  shipowners,  merchants, 
and  traders  who  had  to  live  in  convenient  centers  for  ship 
ping,  and  so  a  few  towns  sprang  up. 

The  Principal  Cities.  —  In  1763  Philadelphia,  the  largest 
city  in  the  colonies,  boasted  a  population  of  only  about 
25,000.  New  York,  Boston,  Baltimore,  Charleston,  Hart- 


From  a  photograph 

WILLIAM  PENN'S  HOUSE  AS  IT  APPEARS  IN  FAIRMOUNT  PARK  TO-DAY 

ford,  Providence,  and  Norfolk  were  reckoned  among  the 
other  chief  cities,  though  they  were  merely  overgrown 
country  villages,  according  to  our  standards.  In  these 
towns,  as  on  the  great  plantations  of  the  South,  there  were 
a  few  stately  homes  of  rich  merchants  and  landed  pro 
prietors.  Some  of  the  well-to-do  merchants  rode  in  coaches 
and  wore  powdered  wigs  after  the  fashion  of  English  gentle 
men,  while  their  wives  were  "resplendent  in  silks,  satins, 
velvets,  and  brocades." 

Travel  in  Colonial  America.  —  One  thing  that  confined 
the  location  of  towns  mainly  to  good  harbors  was  the  back- 


LIFE,   LABOR,   AND  LIBERTY   IN  AMERICA          107 

ward  state  of  the  roads  and  the  horrors  of  overland  travel. 
It  is  almost  impossible  for  us  to  imagine  in  these  days  the 
difficulties  encountered  in  colonial  times  by  those  \vho  had 
occasion  to  journey  far  from  home.  Trips  from  city  to  city 
along  the  coast  were  usually  made  in  small  sailing  ves 
sels.  Sloops  navigated  the  larger  rivers  —  the  Connecticut, 
Hudson,  Delaware,  Potomac,  and  James  —  while  upon 
the  smaller  streams  hand-propelled  boats  were  extensively 
used.  The  rivers  of  New  England  were  not  navigable  far 
inland,  and  as  a  result  the  construction  of  roads  was  more 
advanced  in  that  region  than  in  any  of  the  other  colonies. 

On  the  eve  of  the  Revolution  there  had  been  opened 
the  famous  "Shore  Road"  from  Boston  through  Providence, 
New  London,  and  New  Haven,  to  New  York  City.  There 
was  also  an  overland  route  from  Boston,  through  Med- 
field,  Hartford,  and  Litchfield,  to  New  York.  But  both 
were  merely  widened  trails  which  were  almost  impass 
able  during  the  rainy  seasons.  Regular  stagecoach  lines 
seem  to  have  been  established  between  Boston  and  New 
York  in  1732,  and  between  New  York  and  Philadelphia 
in  1756.  To  the  southward,  where  there  were  many 
navigable  streams  reaching  inward  to  the  plantations,  most 
of  the  travel  was  by  water  routes  and  the  construction 
of  roads  was  sadly  neglected.  Except  along  the  highways 
between  the  large  towns  wheeled  vehicles  were  seldom  seen. 
Travel  off  those  lines  was  by  horseback,  and  goods  were 
carried  by  pack  horses. 


III.   DIFFERENCES  IN  GOVERNMENT  BETWEEN  NORTHERN 
AND  SOUTHERN  COLONIES 

Conditions  in  New  England. — The  difficulties  of  travel 
shut  the  communities  off  from  one  another  and  tended  to 
the  development  of  peculiar  ways  of  living  in  each  locality 


108         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

"provincialism,"  as  it  is  called.  There  were  other 
reasons,  too,  for  the  marked  distinctions  among  the 
several  sections.  The  character  of  the  country  and  the 
climate  made  a  great  difference  in  the  methods  of  settle 
ment.  In  New  England  the  winters  were  long  and  cold, 
and  there  were  no  wide  and  fertile  valleys  bordering  deep 
and  navigable  streams.  There  the  great  plantation  system 
of  the  South  with  slave  labor  could  not  be  adopted.  More 
over  the  Indians  were  very  troublesome,  especially  in 
Massachusetts  and  Connecticut. 

For  these  and  perhaps  other  reasons,  the  New  England 
frontier  was  advanced  by  planting  close  together  tiny 
settlements,  called  "  towns,"  rather  than  by  the  rapid 
spread  of  huge  estates  like  those  in  Virginia.  A  town  in 
this  sense  included  not  merely  the  village  in  the  center  but 
the  surrounding  farms  as  well.  It  was  similar  to  the  "  town 
ship"  in  Indiana  and  the  other  middle  western  states. 
There  was  one  important  difference,  however ;  its  boundaries 
were  not  regular  as  are  those  of  the  western  townships, 
each  of  which  is  normally  six  miles  square.  Thus  it  came 
about  that  in  the  colonies  of  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island, 
Connecticut,  and  New  Hampshire,  the  town'was  the  "  unit  " 
or  smallest  division  of  local  government,  and  the  colony 
was  simply  a  collection  of  towns. 

Local  Self-government  in  New  England.  '  The  Town  Meet 
ing. —  Each  one  of  these  little  towns  was  governed  by  a 
"town  meeting,"  in  which  every  man  entitled  to  vote  could 
take  part  in  discussing  and  determining  what  the  town 
should  do.  At  the  town  meeting,  everything  of  impor 
tance  to  the  people  was  decided  :  the  sizes  of  the  houses 
to  be  built,  the  kinds  of  roofs  to  be  put  on  the  houses,  the 
laying  out  of  roads,  and  other  matters  of  similar  detail. 
There,  also,  the  voters  agreed  on  the  amount  of  taxes  to 
be  laid  on  the  inhabitants  and  chose  the  officers  to  carry 


LIFE,   LABOR,  AND  LIBERTY   IN  AMERICA          109 

on  the  business  of  government :  the  selectmen,  constables, 
cowherds,  poundkeepers,  fence-viewers,  and  hog-reeves. 

The  town  meetings  were  little  "  schools  of  government 
and  politics/'  in  which  the  men  of  New  England  learned 
how  to  manage  local  matters.  Instead  of  having  a  royal 
officer  sent  down  to  tell  them  what  to  do  and  how  to  do  it, 
they  looked  after  their  own  affairs.  In  the  debates  at  the 
town  hall,  they  formed  the  habit  of  discussing  questions  of 
government,  such  as  taxation  and  the  election  of  officers. 
Men  accustomed  to  transact  public  business  were  not 
likely  to  look  with  favor  upon  a  king's  interference. 

Other  Sources  of  the  Spirit  of  Independence  in  New  Eng 
land. --The  New  England  churches  also  contributed  to 
the  spirit  of  political  liberty.  Each  little  town  had  its 
own  Congregational  church,  which  was  controlled  from 
within.  The  men  in  the  church  chose  the  parson  and 
conducted  the  business  of  the  church  to  suit  themselves. 
They  would  listen  only  to  the  kind  of  sermons  that  they 
liked,  and  they  would  not  allow  the  preacher  to  tell  them 
exactly  what  to  believe  and  to  do.  The  clergymen,  being 
well  educated,  were  very  influential  men  in  the  towns ;  but 
they  were  by  no  means  masters. 

New  England  independence  was  further  increased  by 
the  fact  that  the  inland  regions  were  largely  settled  by 
dissatisfied  townsmen  from  the  older  districts  who  did  not 
like  the  sermons  of  the  preachers,  the  management  of  the 
public  business,  or  interference  with  their  own  ways  of  think 
ing  and  talking.  Criticism  of  the  government  and  the 
church  was  always  rife,  and  sometimes  even  the  women 
took  part  in  opposition  to  the  town  "  fathers "  and  the 
parson. 

One  of  them,  Anne  Hutchinson,  wanted  the  right  to 
believe  what  she  pleased,  and  objected  to  the  action  of 
the  preachers  in  meddling  in  town  government  and  other 


no         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

affairs  outside  of  church  business.  The  ministers  and  the 
voters  who  had  been  accustomed  to  manage  things  in  their 
own  way  were  horrified  at  this  "  unwomanly "  conduct. 
Thereupon  she  was  driven  out  of  Massachusetts  "  for  tra 
ducing  the  ministers  and  their  ministry,"  and  founded  the 
town  of  Pocasset  (Pawtucket)  in  Rhode  Island. 


ANNE  HUTCHINSON  PREACHING  IN  HER  HOME 

In  view  of  all  this  debating  about  town  government 
and  church  affairs,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  people  of 
New  England  were  very  jealo'us  of  their  rights. 

Larger  "  Units "  of  Government  in  the  Middle  Colonies.  — 
In  New  York,  the  LJ  patroon  "  system,  introduced   by  the 
Dutch,  made  the  government  of  many  towns   in  the  Hud 
son  Valley  very  different  from  that  in  New  England.     Some 
of  the  great  estates  were,  in  fact,  complete  villages  with 


LIFE,   LABOR,   AND  LIBERTY  IN  AMERICA          ill 

thousands  of  acres  of  land  attached,  all  owned  by  rich 
landlords.  In  general,  however,  New  York  was  laid  out 
after  the  fashion  of  Old  England  into  counties.  This  was 
true  of  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Pennsylvania.  The 
county  thus  became  an  important  unit  of  government ;  but 
at  the  same  time  the  middle  colonies  retained  the  towns, 
where  local  meetings  and  elections  nourished  the  spirit  of 
independence. 

The  "County"  as  the  Unit  in  the  South.  —  To  the  South, 
where  the  wide  valleys  and  mild  climate  made  possible 
the  cultivation  of  immense  plantations  by  slave  labor,  the 
settlers  spread  out  rapidly  on  their  broad  estates,  so  that 
the  area  occupied  was  more  thinly  settled  and  far  greater 
in  extent  than  in  New  England.  In  the  South,  therefore, 
the  county  was  the  important  "  unit  "  of  local  govern 
ment.  The  sheriff,  the  justices  of  the  peace,  and  the 
other  county  officers,  were  not  elected  by  the  voters,  but 
were  appointed  by  the  royal  governor.  Nevertheless  the 
southern  people  had  their  colonial  assemblies,  and  were 
equally  zealous  with  those  of  the  North  in  the  defense 
of  their  rights.  Planters  took  the  leadership,  and  the  small 
farmers,  "  the  yeomen  y;  of  the  inland  regions,  supported  the 
American  cause  by  giving  freely  their  blood  and  treasure. 


IV.   LIKENESSES   IN   GOVERNMENT   BETWEEN  THE   NORTH 
AND  THE  SOUTH 

Few  Differences  in  Language,  Religion,  and  Law.  —  Notwith 
standing  all  the  ^ifferences  among  the  colonies  which 
tended  to  disunion,  there  were  many  things  which  helped  to 
draw  them  together,  (i)  They  had  a  common  language  and 
a  common  literature.  (2)  Although  they  were  divided  into 
many  sects,  they  were  nearly  all  Protestants.  (3)  From 
New  Hampshire  to  Georgia  one  kind  of  law  was  applied 


112        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

-  the  common  law  of  England  —  except  as  far  as  it  was 
modified  by  local  legislatures.  Trial  by  jury  and  a  cer 
tain  amount  of  religious  toleration  were  found  everywhere. 
(4)  Finally,  but  by  no  means  least  important,  was  their 
similarity  in  the  form  of  government.  No  matter  whether 
the  colony  was  royal,  corporate,  or  proprietary,  it  had  an 
assembly  chosen  by  men  of  property.  This  assembly  had 
a  share  in  the  making  of  laws,  and  no  taxes  could  be  collected 
without  its  consent.  The  right  to  vote  was  limited,  and 
yet  there  grew  up  in  every  colony  a  large  body  of  men 
who  had  a  share  in  their  own  government,  and  who  were 
accustomed  to  think  of  themselves  as  having  an  important 
part  in  the  making  of  laws  and  laying  of  taxes. 

"  Representative "  Government  in  the  Colonies.  —  In  the 
early  days  of  settlement,  when  each  colony  was  confined  to 
a  single  post  or  community,  its  local  affairs  were  managed 
by  all  those  inhabitants  entitled  to  a  voice  in  government. 
When  several  settlements  were  added,  it  became  difficult 
for  the  voters  to  meet  in  one  place,  and  the  "  general  " 
assembly  was  given  up  in  favor  of  a  "  representative  "  as 
sembly  composed  of  delegates  from  each  town,  plantation, 
or  county,  as  the  case  might  be.  Such  a  representative 
body  was  called  in  Virginia  as  early  as  1619,  and  long  before 
the  Revolution  every  colony  had  its  assembly,  chosen  by 
the  voters. 

In  all  the  colonies,  except  Pennsylvania  and  Georgia, 
the  legislature  consisted  of  two  houses.  In  the  New  Eng 
land  colonies,  except  New  Hampshire,  both  houses  were 
elected ;  while  in  New  York,  New  Jersey,  New  Hampshire, 
Virginia,  North  and  South  Carolina,  the  upper  house  con 
sisted  of  a  governor's  council  appointed  by  the  king  in 
England. 

•    Restrictions  on  the  Right  to   Vote.  — A  large   number  of 
the  adult  inhabitants  had  no  share  in  voting  for  representa- 


LIFE,   LABOR,  AND  LIBERTY   IN  AMERICA          113 

tives  in  the  colonial  assembly.  Only  those  who  had  prop 
erty  or  paid  taxes  could  vote.  A  man  could  not  vote  in 
Virginia  unless  he  owned  a  certain  amount  of  land,  or  in 
Massachusetts  unless  he  had  a  stated  amount  of  land  or 
other  property  of  a  fixed  value.  Moreover,  the  law  often 
provided  that  the  voter  or  officeholder  must  believe  in 
certain  religious  doctrines. 

The  idea  that  only  property  owners  should  vote  had  been 
brought  from  England.  Only  a  few  of  the  most  radical 
had  suggested  that  all  men  should  be  given  the  ballot,  re 
gardless  of  their  wealth  or  religious  opinions. 

It  is  estimated  that  about  one  fourth  of  the  white  males 
were  denied  a  share  in  the  governments  of  the  colonies  be 
cause  they  did  not  hold  the  required  amount  of  property. 
Strange  to  say,  not  more  than  one  half,  and  frequently  far 
less  than  one  half  of  those  entitled  to  vote  seem  to  have 
taken  the  trouble  to  exercise  the  right. 

Limited  Suffrage  Led  to  the  Growth  of  a  "Governing  Class." 

-The  limitations  on  the  right  to  vote  and  the  indifference 
of  many  voters  made  it  possible  in  nearly  eyery  colony  for 
a  minority  of  well-to-do  and  active  men  to  form  themselves 
into  a  " governing  class."  In  the  South,  for  instance,  the 
rich  plantation  owners  were  the  only  persons  who  had  the 
leisure  and  means  necessary  to  travel  and  to  take  part  in 
politics ;  they  ruled  the  southern  colonies,  particularly  Vir 
ginia.  In  Pennsylvania,  it  was  the  Quaker  merchants  and 
land-owners  who  ruled.  In  New  York,  the  great  feudal 
landlords  of  the  Hudson  Valley  and  the  rich  merchants  and 
shipowners  of  New  York  City  were  the  leaders  in  politics. 
In  New  England,  the  clergy,  the  lawyers,  and  the  merchants 
made  up  what  was  known  as  the  "  natural  aristocracy  " ; 
but  the  free  farmers  composed  a  majority  of  the  inhabit 
ants  and  were  active  in  political  life,  especially  in  town 
meetings.  Some  of  those  who  were  excluded  from  a  share 


114         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

in  public  affairs  were  discontented  with  their  lot,  even  before 
the  Revolution ;  and,  after  independence  was  secured,  they 
began  to  demand  a  share  in  the  government. 

Contests  between  Royal  Governors  and  Representative  As 
semblies.  -  -  The  men  who  did  have  a  voice  in  electing  mem 
bers  of  the  colonial  popular  assembly,  and  who  took  part  in 
the  elections,  were  very  stanch  in  contending  that  they  had 
a  right  to  transact  the  business  of  the  colony  in  their  own 
way.  They  wanted  to  make  laws  and  to  tax  themselves  as 
they  pleased;  but  there  were  several  difficulties  in  the  way. 
In  none  of  the  colonies,  except  Rhode  Island  and  Con 
necticut,  were  the  governors  elected  by  popular  vote.  In 
New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Virginia,  and  the  other  southern  colonies,  the  governor  was 
appointed  by  the  king;  in  the  proprietary  colonies - 
Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  and  Delaware  —  the  proprietor 
either  acted  as  governor  himself  or  selected  some  one  to  act 
in  his  stead. 

There  were  often  spirited  contests  between  the  governor 
and  the  popular  assembly.  In  these  contests  the  voters 
took  a  lively  interest.  They  learned  that  by  resisting 
the  king's  governor  they  could  frequently  get  their  own 
way.  Often  they  would  refuse  to  vote  any  taxes  until 
the  governor  would  promise  to  grant  them  some  favor 
which  they  demanded.  In  the  struggles  over  colonial  gov 
ernment,  and  in  the  meetings  in  the  towns,  the  men  of  the 
colonies  were  being  prepared  to  assert  and  maintain  their 
complete  independence. 

V.    EDUCATION  IN  THE  COLONIES;    SUMMARY 

There  was,  in  colonial  times,  no  common  system  of  public 
schools ;  there  were  few  important  books  on  American  life, 
and  no  newspapers  and  magazines  with  circulations  extend- 


LIFE,   LABOR,   AND  LIBERTY   IN  AMERICA          115 

ing  from  New  Hampshire  to  Georgia.  Newspapers  there 
were,  it  is  true,  in  Boston,  Hartford,  New  York,  Philadel 
phia,  Charleston,  and  some  other  cities ;  but  they  were 
small  sheets  which  had  only  a  few  hundred  readers  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood. 

Elementary   Education    Strongly    Religious.  --The    English 
colonies  had  been  founded  long  before  the  idea  of  free  public 


^^^m 

i  l||  ||;  :«8|     |I 


* 

n 

1  •- '••'••«, frfTsrnyrmm  rnm^m  II  lilU 

^^rrssiBrertsita  PJlrrHW--i-§--y-^:f'P' 
,  --lltpi^ll*'  iMW  R  i 


.«,-.- 


HARVARD  COLLEGE  IN  1776 


From  an  old  print 


schools  had  taken  any  root  in  Europe  ;  but  one  of  the  chief 
demands  of  each  sect  in  America  was  the  right  to  instruct 
all  its  youth  in  the  religious  doctrines  which  it  held  to  be 
true.  In  order  that  their  children  might  not  wander  from 
the  faith  of  their  fathers,  the  members  of  these  sects  laid 
great  emphasis  on  teaching  young  people  to  read,  so  that 
they  could  learn  the  catechism  and  study  the  Bible.  As  a 
result  many  schools  for  teaching  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
and  religious  doctrines  sprang  up.  This  was  especially  true 
of  New  England. 


Ii6        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

The  Colleges.  —  There  were  few  colleges  in  colonial  times 
and  they  were  likewise  designed  to  advance  the  interests 
of  religious  sects  :  the  Puritan  colleges,  Harvard  and  Yale 
in  New  England  ;  the  Episcopal  colleges,  King's  in  New 
York  (now  Columbia  University),  and  William  and  Mary  in 
Virginia  ;  The  College  of  New  Jersey  (now  Princeton)  under 
Presbyterian  auspices  ;  and  the  independent  University  of 
Pennsylvania  founded  by  Benjamin  Franklin.  In  the 
South  schools  and  colleges  were  not  so  common.  Well-to- 
do  planters  had  tutors  for  their  children  and  sent  their  sons 
to  England  to  complete  their  education. 


Summary:  America  Prepared  for  Independence.  —  When 
we  think  of  the  humble  beginnings,  we  cannot  repress  sur 
prise  that  it  was  possible  for  the  Americans  to  carry  through 
the  Revolution  against  the  power  that  had  humbled  Spain 
and  France,  (i)  The  difficulties  of  travel  and  communica 
tion  made  it  hard  to  unite  the  colonies  and  get  them  to  pull 
together.  (2)  The  long  distances  made  it  difficult  to  collect 
troops  speedily  at  strategic  points  and  often  defeated  the 
best-laid  plans.  (3)  The  backward  state  of  industries  and 
business  taxed  the  skill  of  the  patriots  in  finding  money  and 
supplies  for  the  army. 

And  yet  there  were  elements  of  strength,  (i)  Accustomed 
to  a  large  degree  of  self-government  in  their  towns  and  colo 
nial  legislatures,  the  men  had  confidence  in  their  powers  of 
management.  (2)  Knowing  that  they  could  build  ships  as 
large  and  swift  as  any  that  sailed  the  seas,  they  gathered 
courage  for  their  contest  with  Great  Britain.  (3)  With  more 
home-owning  tillers  of  the  soil  and  with  more  freedom  of 
education  and  discussion  than  any  European  nations  en 
joyed,  they  had  more  independence  of  spirit  and  more 
liberty  in  living  than  did  the  masses  beyond  the  seas. 


LIFE,   LABOR,  AND  LIBERTY   IN  AMERICA          117 

America  was  prepared  to  challenge  kings,  princes,  and 
lords,  and  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  best  democracy, 
with  all  its  limitations  and  errors,  that  the  world  had  up 
to  that  time  beheld.  The  strength  was  in  the  life  and 
labor  of  the  people. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.   Compare  the  farmers  of  America  in  colonial  times  with  the 
peasant-farmers  of  Europe.      2.    In  what  ways  does  the  ownership 
of  his  land  by  the  farmer  develop  his  spirit  of  self-reliance  and  in 
dependence  ?     3.    In  what    parts  of   the  southern   colonies  were 
the  farm  lands  usually  owned  by  the  men  who  tilled  them  ? 

II.  i.    How  was  manufacturing    carried   on  in  the  colonies  ? 
2.    Name  the  principal  manufactured  goods.      3.    Why  were  the 
northern  colonies  more  actively  engaged  in  ship  building  than  the 
southern  colonies?     4.    In  what  colonies  was  commerce  impor 
tant  and  with  what  parts  of  the  world   was   foreign  commerce 
carried  on  ?     What  were  the    principal  goods  exported   and  im 
ported  ?     5.    How  did  people  travel  in  colonial  times  ? 

III.  i.    Make  a  list  of  the  leading  differences  in  surface  and 
climate  between  New  England  and  Virginia.     2.    Why  have  the 
New  England    town   meetings    been  called    "schools    of  govern 
ment  and   politics"  ?     3.    In    what  way  did  the  organization  of 
the  churches  in  New  England  help  to  develop  the  spirit  of  inde 
pendence  ?     4.    Who  was  Anne  Hutchinson  ?     Why  is  her  name 
remembered  ?     5.    Make  a  list  of  the  principal  differences  between 
the  government  of  the  New  England  colonies  and  the  government 
of  the  middle  colonies. 

IV.  i.    In  what  ways  were  the  colonies  similar?     2.  What  is 
meant  by  representative  government  ?     3.    What  differences  would 
there  be  in  our  government  to-day  if  the  right  to  vote  were  deter 
mined  by  a  "property  "standard  ?     4.    In  what  different  ways  were 
the  governors  chosen  in  the  various  colonies  ?     In  what  way  did 
the  voters  sometimes  control  the  "royal"  governors? 

V.  i.    Why  did  the  colonists,  especially  in  New  England,  place 
so  much  importance  upon  teaching  children  to  read  ? 

Review:  Locate  on  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States  (a)  the 
western  limits  of  the  settlements  and  (b)  the  principal  cities  of 
the  colonies  at  the  close  of  the  Seven  Years'  War. 


Ii8        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  In  your  neighborhood  do  the  farmers  till  their  own  lands  or 
are  the  farms  generally  worked  by  renters  ?     Can  the  renters  in 
your  neighborhood  look  forward  to  owning  the  land  that  they 
till  ?     Compare  the  opportunities  for  land-ownership  to-day  with 
those  of  colonial  times. 

2.  Give  an  account  of  the  difficulties  of  travel  both  by  land  and 
by  water  in  colonial  days. 

See  Mowry's  "American  Inventions  and  Inventors/^  pp.  187— 
206;  Hart's  "Colonial  Children,"  pp.  67-70. 

3.  Imagine  yourself  a  colonial  schoolboy.     Be  ready  to  tell  the 
class  what  you  would  have  studied,  what  kind  of  teachers  you 
would  have  had,  and  how  you  would  have  been  taught. 

See  Hart's  "  Colonial  Children,"  Part  VII,  especially  pp.  206-207 ; 
210-215  ;  218-232;  Eggleston's  "Our  First  Century,"  pp.  192-200. 

4.  Give  as  many  reasons  as  you  can  explaining  why  most  of  the 
English  settlements  were  within  fifty  miles  of  the  Atlantic  coast. 

See  Semple's  "American  History  and  its  Geographic  Condi 
tions,"  ch.  iii;  Brigham's  "Geographic  Influences  in  American 
History,"  ch.  iii. 


CHAPTER  VII 

CAUSES  OF  THE  AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 

The.  close  of  the  French  and  Indian  War  marked  a  new 
epoch  in  America.  Until  that  day,  the  English  colonists 
had  enjoyed  a  wide  liberty  in  the  management  of  their 
affairs.  It  is  true  that  many  i^ws  restricting  their  trade  had 
been  passed  by  Parliament,  but  they  were  not  enforced. 
During  much  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when  the  founda 
tions  of  all  the  colonies  except  Georgia  were  being  laid,  the 
English  at  home  were  in  the  throes  of  a  revolution.  In 
1649  they  beheaded  their  king,  Charles  I,  and  in  1688  they 
drove  out  another  king,  James  II.  At  the  opening  of  the 
eighteenth  century  and  for  a  long  time  afterward,  Great 
Britain  was  involved  in  European  wars  which  taxed  the 
energies  and  absorbed  the  nterest  of  her  statesmen. 

I.    ENGLAND  BEGINS  TO  CONTROL  COLONIAL  TRADE 

After  1763  the  British  government  was  in  a  much  better 
position  to  bring  the  colonists  under  control.  Spain  had 
been  reduced  to  so  low  an  estate  that  she  was  not  to  be 
taken  seriously  as  a  rival  in  the  New  World,  and  France 
had  been  driven  from  the  continent  of  North  America  alto 
gether.  Moreover,  at  this  time  England  was  at  peace  at 
home.  The  government  no  longer  feared  the  outbreak  of 
another  revolution.  The  British  navy  was  triumphant  at 
sea  and  King  George  III  was  secure  on  his  throne. 

119 


120        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

The  British  Imperial  Policy  In  other  words,  the  day  had 
come  for  putting  into  effect  what  was  known  as  an  "  im 
perial  colonial  policy."  This  meant  keeping  English  trade 
in  English  hands  and  excluding  the  Dutch,  French,  Spanish, 
and  all  other  peoples  from  profiting  by  it  in  any  way.  It 
meant  also  building  up  the  English  merchant-marine,  so  as 
to  increase  the  number  of  English  sailors  and  thus  make 
possible  a  navy  that  could  continue  to  "  rule  the  waves." 
This  imperial  policy  led  the  British  government  to  interfere 
more  and  more  with  the  affairs  of  the  colonists,  with  a  view 
to  strengthening  the  British  empire  and  enlarging  British 
trade  throughout  the  world. 

The  Objectionable  Laws.  —  Great  Britain  did  not  sud 
denly  decide  upon  this  policy  in  1763.  A  long  time  before, 
she  had  begun  to  enact  a  long  series  of  laws,  including 
the  following  measures  : 

1.  Navigation  Laws.     These  laws  provided  that  all  prod 
ucts  grown   or   manufactured   in  Asia,  Africa,  or  America 
must  be  imported  into  England  or  English  colonies  only  in 
English  ships ;   also  that  European  goods  could  be  carried 
to  the  colonies  only  in  English  ships,  and  not  then  unless 
they  were  first  taken  to  England. 

2.  Trade  Laws,  requiring  colonists  to  sell  their  tobacco 
and  some  other  produce  to  English  merchants  only,  even 
if  better  prices  could  be  secured  elsewhere. 

3.  Acts  Forbidding  Manufactures.      In   order   to   compel 
the  colonists  to  buy  from  English  manufacturers,  they  were" 
forbidden  to  produce  in  America,  for  the  purpose  of  export 
to  neighboring  towns  and  colonies  or  abroad,  a  number  of 
commodities,  such  as  fur  caps,  steel,  and  woolen  goods. 

The  Stubbornness  of  George  III.  —  George  III,  who  came 
to  the  throne  in  1760,  was  willful  and  arbitrary  in  his  govern 
ment,  and  stubborn  in  his  views.  Parliament,  which  made 
the  laws  that  stirred  the  Americans  to  arms,  represented 


CAUSES  OF  THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION  121 

only  a  few  thousand  voters.  The  mass  of  the  people  had 
no  voice  in  the  government.  By  bribery  and  other  means 
George  III  was  always  able  to  get  a  majority  in  Parliament 
in  favor  of  his  plans.  In  all  this  he  was  the  spokesman  for 
a  small  but  powerful  party  of  "  imperialists  "  in  England, 
who  were  bent  on  binding  the  colonies  to  the  mother  country 
and  using  their  trade  and  commerce  for  the  benefit  of  Brit 
ish  manufacturers  and  merchants. 

Enforcement  of  Qld  Laws  and  Enactment  of  New  Laws 
after  1763. — Although  most  of  the  trade  laws  had  been 
on  the  books  a  long  time,  they  had  not  been  strictly 
enforced.  After  1763,  however,  Great  Britain,  being  at 
peace  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  having  her  warships 
ready  for  action  against  smugglers,  set  about  the  task  of 
bringing  the  American  colonies  into  closer  union  with  the 
home  country.  The  British  territory  in  North  America  had 
been  greatly  increased  and  more  troops  were  needed  to  de 
fend  it.  There  was  always  some  danger  that  France  and 
Spain  might  attempt  to  recover  what  they  had  lost.  It 
seemed  the  proper  thing,  therefore,  to  the  British  govern 
ment  to  keep  a  larger  army  in  the  colonies  and  to  call  on 
the  inhabitants  to  pay  a  part  of  the  cost  of  defense. 

New  Policy  of  Great  Britain.  —  Among  the  many  ways  in 
which  the  British  sought  to  strengthen  the  empire  and  se 
cure  a  firmer  grip  on  the  colonies  were  the  following : 

1.  The  trade  and  navigation  laws  mentioned  above  were 
enforced  by  having  warships  constantly  searching  the  coast 
waters  for  smugglers  who  brought  goods  into  the  colonies 
in  violation  of  the  laws.     These  smugglers  were  tried  in  an 
"admiralty"   court  where    no   jury  was    used.     This   was 
done  because  it  was  found  that,  when  smugglers  were  tried 
in  the  ordinary  courts,  juries  composed  of  neighbors  refused 
to  find  the  accused  guilty  of  the  charge. 

2.  Another  cause  of  grievance  was  the  order  of  the  king 


122        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


in  1763  forbidding  colonists  to  go  into  the  western  country 
and  buy  land  from  the  Indians,  or  to  settle  there  without 
the  consent  of  the  royal  government.  The  Americans  re 
garded  this  as  an  infringement  of  their  right  to  go  where 
they  pleased  and  make  homes  for  themselves. 

3.  In  addition  to  an  old  tax  on  sugar  and  molasses  bought 
anywhere  except  in  the  British  West  Indies,  special  duties 


fenny 


STAMP  ACT  STAMPS 
They  rangea  in  cost  from  a  penny  to  several  pounds. 

were  laid  in  1764  on  many  French,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese 
articles   imported   into   the   colonies. 

4.  In  1765  a  stamp  tax  was  laid  on  a  large  number  of 
papers  and  documents  used  in  the  colonies.  This  was  the 
first  time  in  the  history  of  America  that  the  British 
government  had  imposed  an  "internal"  tax  on  the  inhabit 
ants  directly,  and  it  was  resented,  as  all  new  taxes  are 
usually  disliked  by  those  who  have  to  pay  them.  The  law 
provided  that  stamps  ranging  in  cost  from  a  penny  to  several 
pounds  should  be  placed  on  newspapers,  almanacs,  playing 
cards,  deeds,  licenses,  college  diplomas^  etc. 

II.   THE  PROTESTS  OF  THE  COLONIES  AGAINST  TAXATION 
WITHOUT  REPRESENTATION 

Opposition  to  the  Stamp  Act.  Virginia.  —  Although  the 
money  raised  from  the  stamp  duty  was  to  be  spent  in  the 
colonies  for  their  defense,  the  Americans  objected  to  the 


CAUSES  OF  THE  AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 


123 


tax  because  it  was  imposed  upon  them  without  their  con 
sent  by' a  parliament  three  thousand  miles  away  in  London, 
where  they  had  no  representatives.  It  seemed  unbearable. 
In  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses  (see  page  in)  Patrick 
Henry  made  a  fiery  speech  against  the  stamp  tax.  Moved 
by  his  eloquence,  the  members  passed  resolutions  denouncing 
the  law  and  declaring  that  the  people  of  that  colony  had 
certain  "  rights  "  which  could  not  be  taken  from  them, 
including  the  right  to  be  taxed  and  governed  only  by  their 
own  assembly  of  elected  representat'ves. 

The  Stamp  Act  Congress.  --  Far  awa>  to  the  North, 
Massachusetts  also  was  stirred  by  the  stamp  tax.  There 
Samuel  Adams  took  the  lead.  James  Otis,  "a  flame  of 


i  $  lfW$J$t  m  i&il',I:a:S:x:!IS^S 
s    Hi  IK  ^-WliliHlii^iraWpSKSE 


Frow  a  painting  by  Robert  Reid 

THE  SPEECH  OF  JAMES  OTIS 

fire,"  eloquently  attacked  British  policy  as  illegal  and  un 
just,  and  flung  himself  into  the  fray.  The  lower  house 
of  the  legislature  issued  a  call  to  all  the  colonies  to  send 
delegates  to  a  congress  at  New  York  City.  Nine  colonies 
responded  to  the  call,  and  the  famous  "  Stamp  Act  Con 
gress  "  met  in  New  York  in  October,  1765. 


124        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

This/Congress  passed  a  set  of  resolutions  condemning  the 
Stamp  Act  and  other  laws  interfering  with  colonial  trade y' 
and  declared  that  the  colonists  could  be  lawfully  taxed  only 
by  their  representatives  in  their  own  legislatures.  It  was 
added  also  that  the  colonists  could  not,  from  the  nature  of 
the  circumstances,  be  represented  in  the  distant  British 
Parliament.  These  resolutions,  therefore,  were  a  protest 
against  the  British  interference  and  a  declaration  that  the 
colonists  would  not  endure  taxation  by  Parliament. 

The  Colonists  Give  Other  Evidences  of  Disapproval.  — 
Those  who  were  opposed  to  the  stamp  tax  did  not 
stop  at  passing  resolutions.  In  a  number  of  the  larger 
towns,  mobs  collected  in  the  streets  and  shouted  that  they 
would  cram  the  stamps  down-  the  throats  of  the  agents  who 
attempted  to  sell  them.  The  houses  of  some  of  the  agents 
were  looted.  In  Philadelphia  a  document  duly  stamped  as 
required  by  the  British  government  was  publicly  burned 
to  show  the  contempt  of  the  people  for  the  tax.  At  an 
other  town  an  agent  was  seized  by  a  mob  and  compelled 
to  shout  at  the  top  of  his  voice,  "  Liberty,  property,  and 
no  stamps." 

The  colonists,  in  addition  to  protesting  and  noting,  re 
sorted  to  a  scheme  still  more  dangerous  to  British  mer 
chants.  They  agreed  to  "boycott"  English  goods;  that  is, 
not  to  buy  anything  from  English  merchants.  This  "non 
importation  agreement,"  as  it  was  known,  seriously  injured 
British  trade  and  brought  the  merchants  to  their  knees 
begging  for  mercy. 

The  Stamp  Act  Repealed;  the  Townshend  Acts  Passed. — 
As  a  result  of  all  this  disturbance,  Parliament  decided  to 
give  up  its  plan,  and  in  1766  it  repealed  the  obnoxious 
law.  The  colonists  rejoiced  when  they  heard  that  the  Stamp 
Act  was  no  more ;  but  they  rejoiced  too  soon,  for  the  repeal 
did  not  mean  that  the  British  government  intended  to  give 


CAUSES  OF  THE  AMERICAN  REVOLUTION  125 

up  its  policy  of  controlling  colonial  trade  and  manufactures. 
On  the  contrary,  in  denouncing  the  stamp  tax  in  the  British 
Parliament,  William  Pitt,  who  was  considered  a  friend  of 
America,  distinctly  said  :  <s  We  may  bind  their  trade,  con 
fine  their  manufactures,  and  exercise  every  power  whatso 
ever,  except  that  of  taking  money  out  of  their  pockets  with 
out  their  consent." 

The  very  next  year,  1767,  the  British  Parliament  passed 
three  important  laws,  known  as  the  Townshend  Acts,  all 
of  which  angered  the  colonists,  (i)  One  of  them  ordered 
the  legislature  of  New  York  not  to  do  any  further  business 
until  it  had  provided  supplies  for  British  soldiers  quartered 
there.  (2)  Another  created  a  board  of  officers  at  the  port 
of  Boston  to  see  that  the  trade  laws  were  enforced. 
(3)  The  third  laid  a  small  tax  on  glass,  red  and  white  lead, 
paper,  tea,  and  paints.  At  the  same  time  a  "  Declaratory 
Act  "  was  passed  asserting  the  right  of  Parliament  to  control 
the  colonies  "in  all  matters/' 

The  excitement  which  had  been  aroused  by  the  Stamp 
Act  was  all  stirred  up  again.  Massachusetts  and  Pennsyl 
vania  protested  against  the  laws,  and  colonial  merchants 
renewed  the  boycott  on  British  goods.  It  was  thought 
that  the  vigorous  measures  which  had  forced  the  British 
government  to  repeal  the  Stamp  Act  would  compel  it  to 
give  up  the  enforcement  of  the  trade  and  navigation  laws. 
This  time  the  rebellious  colonists  were  wrong  in  their  guess. 

The  "Boston  Massacre." -- The  enactment  of  the  Town 
shend  laws  brought  on  riots  in  the  colonies,  such  as  had  fol 
lowed  the  Stamp  Act.  When  troops  began  to  arrive  from 
England  to  enforce  the  law,  mobs  in  the  streets  jeered  them. 
In  October,  1768,  the  royal  governor  of  Massachusetts 
lamented  that  "many  of  the  common  people  have  been 
in  a  frenzy  and  talked  of  dying  in  defence  of  their  liberties 
and  have  spoke  and  printed  what  is  highly  criminal." 


126        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

On  the  night  of  March  5,  1770,  a  crowd,  collected  in  the 
streets  of  Boston,  began  to  jostle  some  soldiers  on  duty  and 
to  call  them  names.  Things  went  from  bad  to  worse  until 
"  some  boys  and  young  fellows  "  began  to  throw  snowballs 


2) 


s.i  Encwvd  Printed  I'Sold  by  R*UL  REVEREZ 

From  an  engraving  by  Paul  Revere 
The  "  Boston  Massacre  "  stirred  the  whole  country  irom  New  Hampshire  to  Georgia. 

and  stones,  and  the  soldiers  fired  on  the  crowd,  killing  five 
and   wounding   half  a   dozen   more.     This   "  Boston  Mas 
sacre  "  stirred  the  whole  country  from  New  Hampshire  to 
\Georgia. 

The  Tea  Tax;  the  Boston  '"Tea  Party."  —  In  1770  Parlia 
ment  repealed  all  the  taxes  laid  oy  the  Townshend  Acts 
except  the  duty  of  three  pence  a  pound  on  tea,  which 
was  kept  principally  to  show  the  colonists  that  Parlia 
ment  still  claimed  the  right  to  tax  them  without  their 
consent.  This  encouraged  smugglers  to  bring  in  tea  from 
Holland  without  paying  the  tax,  and  by  unlawful  methods 


CAUSES  OF  THE  AMERICAN   REVOLUTION 


127 


thousands  of  pounds  were  brought  into  Boston  as  well  as 
other  ports  along  the  Atlantic  coast.  Then  the  British 
government,  to  help  the  East  India  Company  sell  large 
stocks  of  tea  on  hand  in  London,  made  it  possible  for  the 
Company  to  send  tea  to  America  at  an  especially  low  rate. 
Thus  the  Company  could  readily  undersell  even  the  Bos- 


THE  BOSTON  TEA  PARTY,  AT  WHICH  A  CARGO  OF  TEA  WAS  DUMPED  INTO 
THE  BOSTON  HARBOR 

ton  merchants  who  had  smuggled  Dutch  tea,  or  had  bought 
it  in  the  regular  manner  and  paid  full  duties. 

The  merchants  were  enraged  not  so  much  at  the  three 
pence  tax  on  the  tea,  as  at  the  favor  shown  by  the  British 
government  to  the  East  India  Company.  They  feared  the 
growth  of  a  great  monopoly  that  would  mean  their  ruin. 
Stirred  by  this  danger,  a  band  of  men  dressed  as  Indians 
boarded,  in  December,  1773,  the  vessels  which  brought  the 
hated  cargoes,  and  dumped  the  tea  into  the  Boston, 
harbor. 


v 


128         THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

The  Colonists  Punished  for  Their  Resistance.  —  In 
stead  of  yielding  to  this  show  of  force  on  the  part  of  the 
colonists  the  British  government  resorted  to  measures 
which  proved  that  it  was  in  earnest,  (i)  It  ordered  the 
legislatures  of  several  colonies  to  dissolve,  and  the  legislators 
to  go  home  and  stay  there  until  called  by  the  royal  author 
ities.  (2)  It  passed  the  Boston  Port  Bill,  which  closed  the 
port  and  destroyed  all  of  the  ocean  trade  that  centered 
there.  (3)  It  gave  the  governor  of  Massachusetts,  who  was 
appointed  by  the  king,  the  power  to  send  to  England  or 
another  colony  for  trial  any  official  accused  of  committing 
murder  while  enforcing  the  laws.  (4)  It  forbade  the  people 
of  Massachusetts  to  hold  town  meetings  without  the  consent 
of  the  governor,  except  to  elect  officers. 


III.   THE  CRISIS  REACHED 

The  First  Continental  Congress  (1774). --The  answer 
of  the  Americans  to  the  strong  measures  on  the  part  of 
the  British  government  was  a  general  Congress  composed 
of  agents  from  every  colony  except  Georgia,  who  met  in 
Carpenters'  Hall,  in  Philadelphia,  on  September  5,  1774. 
This  national  assembly,  like  the  Stamp  Act  Congress  of 
1765,  was  called  by  the  lower  house  of  the  Massachusetts 
legislature.  It  was  attended  by  fifty-six  delegates. 

The  Congress  did  two  important  things :  it  issued  a 
declaration  setting  forth  the  grievances  and  rights  of  the 
colonists ;  and  it  formed  a  general  non-importation  or 
boycott  association  against  British  goods. 

i.  In  the  declaration  of  rights,  it  protested  against  the 
recent  objectionable  laws  of  the  British  government.  It 
announced  that  the  colonies  had  the  right  to  tax  them 
selves  ;  to  make  laws  for  their  internal  government ;  to 
assemble  peaceably ;  to  petition  the  government  and  to  state 


THE  COLONIES  AND  THE  EXTENT  OF  SETTLEMENT  (SEE  MAP,  P.  196)  ON  THE 

EVE  OF  THE  REVOLUTION 
K  129 


130        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

their  grievances ;  to  be  free  from  a  standing  army  in  time 
of  peace;  and  to  enjoy  trial  by  jury. 

2.  In  the  non-importation  agreement  it  was  provided 
that  no  English  goods  should  be  imported  or  sold,  and  that 
committees  chosen  by  the  voters  in  every  town,  city,  and 
county  should  enforce  the  boycott.  Many  a  merchant  was 
tarred  and  feathered  for  selling  English  goods  in  violation 
of  the  agreement. 

Before  adjourning,  the  Continental  Congress  called  a 
second  Congress  to  meet  at  Philadelphia  the  following  year. 

Committees  of  Correspondence.  —  In  the  towns,  counties, 
cities,  and  colonies  committees  of  revolutionists  were 
formed,  which  assumed  direction  of  the  struggle  against 
Great  Britain.  The  committees  corresponded  with  one 
another  and  kept  alive  the  spirit  of  revolution,  while  serv 
ing  as  valuable  aids  in  upholding  the  government. 

The  Americans  Firm  in  Their  Resistance.  --  Tt  was  clear  by 
1774  that  the  more  determined  Americans  were  resolved  to 
push  the  conflict  to  a  finish,  if  the  British  government  did  not 
recede  from  its  position.  And  recede  it  could  not  without 
abandoning  a  policy  which  promised  to  bring  great  profits 
to  the  English  merchants  and  manufacturers  and  to 
strengthen  the  British  empire.  The  truth  was  that 
Americans  could  build  ships  as  big  and  fast  as  an^ that 
sailed  the  seas ;  their  merchants  had  pushed  out  in  every 
direction  into  Europe  and  Asia  in  search  of  trade ;  they 
had  immense  natural  resources ;  they  could  grow  cotton  and 
flax  and  make  cloth  for  themselves.  Therefore  they  were 
in  no  mood  to  see  their  enterprise  restricted,  their  chances 
to  gather  trade  cut  away,  by  laws  made  by  a  distant  Parlia 
ment  for  the  benefit  of  Great  Britain. 

A  people  with  such  courage,  industry,  and  enterprise  as 
the  American  colonists,  with  a  vast  country  at  their  disposal, 
could  not  long  endure  such  laws  as  those  by  which  the 


CAUSES  OF  THE  AMERICAN   REVOLUTION  131 

British  Parliament  sought  to  bind  them.  They  proposed  to 
reap  the  reward  of  their  own  labor.  Somebody  had  to  give 
way,  either  the  British  government,  representing  the  British 
merchants,  manufacturers,  and  traders,  or  the  American  col 
onists.  As  there  was  a  deadlock,  and  neither  side  would 
yield  to  petitions  or  arguments,  resort  to  arms  was  tried. 

English  Friends  of  America.  —  Some  of  the  most  distin 
guished  men  in  England  —  Pitt,  Burke,  and  Fox — raised 
their  voices  in  opposition  to  the  measures  that  were  taken 
against  the  American  colonists. 

William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham.  --  First  among  these  was 
William  Pitt  (Earl  of  Chatham)  under  whose  leadership 
the  borders  of  the  British  empire  had  been  widened  during 
the  Seven  Years'  War.  When  the  news  of  resistance  to  the 
Stamp  Act  reached  the  mother  country,  he  was  stretched 
upon  a  sick  bed  ;  but  he  declared  that,  if  he  could  "  crawl  or 
be  carried  "  to  the  House  of  Lords,  he  would  there  "de 
liver  his  mind  and  heart  upon  the  state  of  America."  And 
he  did.  With  passion  and  bitterness  he  poured  scorn  upon 
the  heads  of  the  men  who  enacted  and  defended  the  Stamp 
Act: 

On  a  question  that  may  mortally  wound  the  freedom  of  three 
millions  of  virtuous  and  brave  subjects  beyond  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  he  said,  I  cannot  be  silent.  America  being  neither 
really  nor  virtually  represented  in  Westminster  [Parliament], 
cannot  be  held  legally,  or  constitutionally,  or  reasonably  subject 
to  obedience  to  any  money  [tax]  bill  of  this  kingdom.  .  .  .  The 
Americans  are  the  sons  ...  of  England.  As  subjects  they  are 
entitled  to  the  common  right  of  representation  and  cannot  be 
bound  to  pay  taxes  without  their  consent.  .  .  .  The  commons  of 
America,  represented  in  their  several  assemblies,  have  ever  been 
in  possession  of  this,  their  constitutional  right,  of  giving  and 
granting  their  own  money.  They  would  have  been  slaves  if  they 
had  not  enjoyed  it.  ...  The  gentleman  tells  us  America  is  obstinate ; 
America  is  almost  in  open  rebellion.  I  rejoice  that  America  has 
resisted. 


132        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

Ten  years  later,  the  Earl  of  Chatham  once  more  startled 
the  House  of  Lords  by  demanding  the  speedy  removal  of 
British  troops  from  the  town  of  Boston.  Again  he  pleaded 
for  a  policy  of  conciliation  and  warned  the  government 
that  it  could  not  break  the  power  of  united  America : 

It  is  not  repealing  a  piece  of  parchment  that  can  restore 
America  to  our  bosom ;  you  must  repeal  her  fears  and  her  resent 
ments;  and  then  you  may  hope  for  her  love  and  gratitude. 
Insulted  with  an  armed  force  posted  at  Boston,  irritated  with  a 
hostile  array  before  her  eyes,  her  concessions,  if  you  could  force 
them,  would  be  insecure.  But  it  is  more  than  evident,  that  united 
as  they  are,  you  cannot  force  them  to  your  unworthy  terms  of 
submission. 

Edmund  Burke .--  While  Pitt,  with  noble  eloquence, 
was  pleading  in  the  House  of  Lords  for  measures  of 
moderation  and  peace,  an  orator  no  less  eminent  for  his 
talents  and  courage,  Edmund  Burke,  was  laboring  in  the 
House  of  Commons  to  soften  the  heart  of  the  obstinate 
government.  In  two  speeches  which  take  their  places 
among  the  splendid  classics  of  the  English  tongue  - 
one  on  "American  Taxation"  and  the  other  on  "Concilia 
tion  with  America "  -  Burke  urged  counsels  of  justice 
and  generosity. 

He  sketched  the  rise  of  the  American  colonies  from  little 
hamlets  and  posts  to  prosperous  colonies  and  a  great  nation. 
He  rejoiced  in  the  courage  and  achievement  of  English  peo 
ple  beyond  the  sea.  He  spoke  of  them  not  as  aliens  and 
enemies  but  as  countrymen  and  brothers.  He  took  pride 
in  their  spirit  of  liberty.  Then  he  solemnly  warned  those 
responsible  for  the  policy  of  taxation  and  repression  that 
harshness  and  stubbornness  would  drive  Americans  into 
breaking  the  empire.  He  had  little  patience  with  those 
who  spoke  of  the  "  right  "  of  Parliament  to  tax  the  col 
onists,  saying : 


CAUSES  OF  THE  AMERICAN  REVOLUTION  133 

The  question  with  me  is  not  whether  you  have  a  right  to 
render  your  people  miserable  but  whether  it  is  not  to  your  interest 
to  make  them  happy.  It  is  not  what  a  lawyer  tells  me  I  may 
do,  but  what  humanity,  reason,  and  justice  tell  me  I  ought  to  do. 

It  was  the  advocates  of  strong  measures  who  triumphed 
in  Parliament  and  in  the  councils  of  King  George.  iv  My 
Lords,"  exclaimed  Lord  Grower,  on  hearing  Pitt's  argu 
ment  for  moderation  and  reconciliation,  "  let  the  Ameri 
cans  talk  about  their  natural  and  divine  rights !  their 
rights  as  men  and  citizens  1  their  rights  from  God  and 
nature  !  I  am  for  enforcing  these  measures."  Rejecting  all 
pleas  for  justice  and  reason,  they  placed  their  hopes  in 
armed  force.  Little  did  they  understand  the  task  that  lay 
before  them. 

The  Americans  Not  Wholly  United. — -As  Englishmen  at 
home  were  divided  over  the  policy  to  be  pursued  in  the 
treatment  of  the  colonists,  so  Americans  themselves  were 
by  no  means  all  agreed  on  resistance  to  the  mother  country. 
Some  Americans  were  high  tempered  and  favored  quick  and 
unrelenting  opposition,  even  to  the  point  of  fighting  for 
their  liberties.  Others  disapproved  the  measures  of  the 
British  government,  but  contented  themselves  with  remon 
strating  against  them  and  petitioning  the  king. 

There  were  many  highly  respectable  citizens  of  each  com 
munity  who  regarded  the  agitation  against  the  Trade  Acts 
and  the  Stamp  Tax  as  the  work  of  "  low  demagogues  "  and 
"  worthless  fellows  "  who  deserved  imprisonment  for  resist 
ing  their  king.  Such  citizens  looked  with  alarm  on  the 
growth  of  democratic  government  in  America.  A  clergy 
man  in  New  England  prayed  that  "  the  monstrously  pop 
ular  constitution  "  of  Connecticut  be  altered  in  such  a 
way  as  to  reduce  the  power  of  the  voters.  He  rejoiced 
in  the  attempts  of  the  king  and  Parliament  to  bring  all 
the  colonies  under  "  one  form  of  government,"  and  wanted 


134        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

to  see  bishops  of  the  Established  Church  put  in  power  in 
every  colony  and  all  charter  governments  made  directly 
dependent  on  the  king.  Thousands  of  these  citizens, 
"  Tories/'  as  they  were  later  called  by  the  Revolutionists, 
remained  loyal  to  the  king  to  the  end.  Many  lost  their 
property  and  were  driven  out  of  the  country. 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.    Why  did  England  pay  more  attention  to  the  American 
colonies  after  1763  ?     Why  was  she  anxious  to  control  the  trade 
of  colonies  ?     Why  were  the  colonies  forbidden  to  do  much  manu 
facturing  ?     Why  were  settlements  toward  the  west  discouraged  ? 
2.    State  the  policies  of  the  English  government  which  the  colo 
nists     found     especially    objectionable.       3.    To-day    duties     are 
levied  on  many  kinds  of   goods  imported   into  the  country  and 
the  Federal    government  has   sometimes  required   stamps  to  be 
placed  on  certain  documents,  such  as  wills,  contracts,  deeds,  and 
bank  checks.     What  are  the  differences   between  these  forms  of 
taxation  and  the  import  and  stamp  taxes  against  which  the  colo 
nists  rebelled  ? 

II.  i.    What  was  the  "Stamp  Act  Congress"  and  why  did  it 
assemble  ?     In  what  other  ways  did  the  colonists  protest  against 
the    stamp    taxes  ?     With    what    results  ?        2.    What    were    the 
"Townshend  Acts"  ?     What  was  the  effect  of  these  laws  upon 
the  colonists  ?       3.    Why  did  the  English  government  retain  the 
tax  upon  tea  after  the  other  objectionable  features  of  the  Town- 
shend  Acts  had  been  repealed  ?     Could  the  English  government 
be  justified  in  retaining  the  tax  for  this  purpose  ? 

III.  i.  Why  was  the  first  Continental  Congress  called?    What 
two  important  things  did  it  do  ?     2.    What  reasons  can  you  give 
for  the  statement  that  the  American  colonies  did  not  revolt  against 
the  English  people  but  rather  against  the  English  government  ? 

Review:  i.  In  what  ways  do  you  think  that  the  English 
government  might  have  avoided  war  with  the  colonists  ? 
2.  What  is  "taxation  without  representation"  ?  Is  any  one  who 
is  not  represented  now  taxed  in  the  United  States  ? 


CAUSES  OF  THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION  135 


PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  The  following    American  patriots  were  prominent   leaders 
in  the  colonies  during  the  years  just  preceding  the    Revolution. 
Select  one  of  these  men  for  special  study  and  prepare  a  talk  for 
the  class  which  will  tell  what  this  man  did  to  help  the  American 
cause  at  this  critical  time:   Benjamin  Franklin,   Samuel  Adams, 
Patrick  Henry,  James  Otis. 

See  Sparks's  "  The  Men  Who  Made  the  Nation,"  chs.  i  and  ii 
(Franklin  and  Adams) ;  Southworth's  "  Builders  of  Our  Coun 
try,"  Book  I,  pp.  208-225  (Franklin) ;  Book  II,  pp.  1-23  (Henry 
and  Adams) ;  Brooks's  "  Stories  of  the  Old  Bay  State,"  pp.  109- 
126  (Otis  and  Adams);  Dudley's  "  Benjamin  Franklin." 

2.  Imagine  yourself  living  in  Boston  during  the  period  treated 
in  this  chapter.      Describe  what  you  might  have  seen  and  heard 
concerning  the  Boston  Massacre  and  the  Boston  Tea  Party. 

See  Hart's  "Camps  and  Firesides  of  the  Revolution,"  pp.  162- 
166;  Hart's  "Source  Book,"  p.  137;  Sparks's  "The  Men  Who 
Made  the  Nation,"  pp.  56-60,  64-69. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE   WAR    FOR   AMERICAN   INDEPENDENCE 
I.   THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  CONFLICT 

Lexington  and  Concord  (April  19,  1775).  --The  first  shot 
of  the  Revolutionary  War  was  fired  in  1775.  In  April  of 
that  year,  General  Gage,  then  in  command  of  a  large  force 
of  British  regulars  at  Boston,  sent  troops  to  Concord  with 
orders  to  destroy  the  military  stores  which  the  Americans 
had  collected  there.  Little  did  he  dream  of  the  fateful 
consequences  as  the  British  soldiers  set  out  on  their  march 
in  the  dead  of  night.  He  thought  it  would  be  a  simple 
matter,  dispatched  with  great  secrecy,  but  the  patriots  in 
Boston  were  alert  and  watchful.  Lanterns,  hung  out  in 
the  tower  of  the  old  North  Church,  flashed  far  and  wide 
the  signal  that  the  British  were  coming,  and  Paul  Revere 
galloped  along  the  road  ahead  of  them  rousing  the  farmers ! 

So  through  the  night  rode  Paul  Revere ; 

And  so  through  the  night  went  his  cry  of  alarm 

To  every  Middlesex  village  and  farm, 

A  cry  of  defiance  and  not  of  fear, 

A  voice  in  the  darkness,  a  knock  on  the  door, 

And  a  word  that  shall  echo  for  evermore! 

When,  on  the  morning  of  April  19,  the  British  soldiers 
reached  Lexington  on  their  way  to  Concord,  they  found 
drawn  up  on  the  village  green  a  band  of  the  American 
militia  —  known  as  "  minutemen,"  because  they  were 

136 


THE  WAR   FOR  AMERICAN   INDEPENDENCE         137 

prepared  to  go  out  at  a  minute's  notice  to  defend  their 
homes.  The  British  commander  ordered  them  to  disperse, 
but  they  refused.  Then  firing  began  and  a  few  minutemen 
were  killed  and  wounded.  '  There  on  the  green,  lay  in 
death  the  grey  haired  and  the  young;  the  grassy  field  was 
red  *  with  the  innocent  blood  of  their  brethren  slain/  " 


From  an  old  print 

THE  RETREAT  FROM  CONCORD 

From   behind  hedges,  trees,  and  stone  walls  the  "minutemen"   poured  shot  into  the 

retreating  British. 

With  cheers  of  triumph  the  British  soldiers  marched  off 
to  Concord,  destroyed  military  stores,  rifled  some  houses, 
and  prepared  to  return.  By  this  time  the  whole  country 
side  was  aroused.  Men  and  boys  came  running,  singly 
and  in  bands,  to  the  road  that  led  from  Concord  to  Boston. 
At  Concord  Bridge  near  the  village  "the  shot  heard  around 
the  world  "  was  fired,  giving  the  signal  for  a  general  conflict. 


138        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

From  behind  hedges,  trees,  and  stone  walls  they  poured  shot 
into  the  retreating  British  all  the  way  along  the  road  until 
the  tired  and  harassed  survivors  reached  Charlestown  where 
they  were  safe  under  guns  of  the  battleships.  Thus,  without 
any  previous  design,  the  war  for  independence  was  begun. 
The  British  had  provoked  it  by  the  march  to  Concord. 
The  minutemen  had  answered. 

The  Nation  Aroused. -- When  blood  was  once  shed  con 
ciliation  was  more  difficult  than  ever.  Only  a  few  months 
before  the  battle  of  Lexington  and  Concord,  Benjamin 
Franklin,  representative  of  the  colonies  in  England,  had 
said  to  America's  friend,  Pitt,  "  I  never  heard  from  any 
person  the  least  expression  of  a  wish  for  a  separation/'  In 
October  of  the  previous  year,  Washington  had  written,  "  No 
such  thing  as  independence  is  desired  by  any  thinking  man 
in  America."  But  after  April  19,  1775,  the  tide  of  opinion 
began  to  change.  The  news  of  that  day  spread  like  wild 
fire  through  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  Rhode  Island, 
and  Connecticut,  up  the  Hudson  Valley,  down  the  coast 
through  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  to  Charleston 
and  Savannah. 

From  all  New  England,  the  minutemen  with  rifles  and 
powder  horns  began  to  pour  out  along  the  highways  and 
trails  to  Boston,  and  in  a  few  days  the  British  troops  in 
that  city  were  completely  surrounded.  Everywhere,  mid 
dle  and  southern  colonies,  the  patriots  were  preparing  for 
war  in  behalf  of  their  liberties.  In  Virginia,  Patrick  Henry 
had  already  called  upon  his  countrymen  : 

The  next  gale  that  sweeps  from  the  North  will  bring  to  our 
ears  the  clash  of  resounding  arms.  Our  brethren  are  already  in 
the  field.  Why  stand  we  here  idle  ?  .  .  .  Is  life  so  dear  or  peace 
so  sweet  as  to  be  purchased  at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery? 
Forbid  it,  Almighty  God!  I  know  not  what  course  others  may 
take;  but  as  for  me,  give  me  liberty  or  give  me  death. 


THE  WAR   FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE 


139 


In  a  few  weeks  the  Second  Continental  Congress,  repre 
senting  all  the  colonies,  met  at  Philadelphia.  Great  work 
lay  before  it.  It  was  to  declare  independence,  raise  armies, 
make  treaties  with  European  powers,  and  wage  war  to  the 
end. 


m  ^         %  m 

,/__-£::<L_-.v  t/v-^ 

TjJ     :-^;&-    ,--:^ 


THE  SPEECH  OF  PATRICK  HENRY 

"  I  know  not  what  course  others  may  take  ;    but  as  for  me,  give  me  liberty,  or  give  me 

death." 


Phases  of  the  War.  --The  long  war  thus  begun  may  be 
divided  for  the  sake  of  clearness  into  the  following  phases  : 

1.  The  Northern  Campaigns 

2.  The  Middle  States  Campaigns 

3.  The  Southern  Campaigns 

Although  fighting  was  going  on  frequently  in  various  parts 
of  the  country  at  the  same  time,  it  seems  best  to  consider 
the  conflicts  in  the  several  regions  separately. 


140        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


II.   THE  NORTHERN  CAMPAIGNS  AND  THE  DECLARATION 
OF  INDEPENDENCE 

The  Siege  of  Boston.  --The  running  fight  begun  at  Con 
cord  ended  in  shutting  the  British  army  up  in  Boston.  As 
you  will  discover  by  looking  at  the  map,  Boston  was  then 
confined  to  a  piece  of  territory  which  was  almost  an  island, 
being  connected  with  the  mainland  only  by  a  narrow  strip 
of  sandy  beach.  To  the  northward  lay  the  peninsula  of 
Charlestown,  on  which  there  were  two  heights.  Breed's  Hill 


BOSTON  AND  VICINITY 

and  Bunker  Hill.  To  the  southward  there  was  another 
peninsula  where  Dorchester  Heights  overlooked  the  city  of 
Boston.  The  British  soldiers  fortified  the  narrow  strip  of 
land  connecting  the  city  with  the  mainland.  The  Ameri 
cans  steadily  grew  in  numbers  as  the  militiamen  flocked  in 
from  every  direction ;  and  under  the  command  of  General 
Joseph  Warren  they  occupied  the  heights  in  Charlestown. 

The  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill  (June  17,  1775).  —  On  June  17, 
they  were  discovered  busily  fortifying  one  of  the  Charles- 
town  hills.  The  British  soldiers  at  once  began  to  move 
on  the  "  rebels."  Twice  the  British  stormed  up  the  hill 


THE  WAR   FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE         141 

only  to  be  swept  back  again  by  the  terrible  fire  of  the 
Americans.  When  they  made  their  third  desperate  charge 
they  were  successful,  for  the  patriots  had  exhausted  their 
powder  and  were  compelled  to  flee  as  best  they  could.  Thus 
the  famous  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  was  fought,  and  won  by  the 
British,  but  at  so  terrible  a  cost  to  them  that  they  wanted 
no  more  victories  like  it. 

Washington  in  Command. — The  day  before  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill,  the  Continental  Congress,  at  Philadelphia, 
chose  as  chief  of  the  American  army  the  Virginian  who 
had  played  so  important  a  part  in  Braddock's  campaign 
and  who  was  soon  to  become  one  of  the  famous  generals 
and  leaders  of  the  world  —  George  Washington.  On  July  3, 
1775,  he  formally  took  command  of  the  army  on  the  Cam 
bridge  Common.  In  his  cautious  and  deliberate  manner, 
he  began  to  prepare  the  raw  and  untrained  forces  under 
him  for  serious  warfare  against  the  British  regulars. 
First  of  all  he  needed  supplies,  particularly  powder. 

Ethan  Allen  Takes  Crown  Point  and  Ticonderoga. — In 
this  regard  he  was  greatly  helped  by  a  brilliant  exploit  of 
Ethan  Allen  and  his  "  Green  Mountain  Boys."  In  May, 
1775,  shortly  after  the  battle  of  Lexington  and  Concord, 
Allen  and  his  men  had  seized  Crown  Point  and  Fort  Ticon 
deroga  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Champlain  and  got  posses 
sion  of  a  large  stock  of  military  stores,  including  the  coveted 
powder  and  many  cannon. 

Boston  Evacuated  by  the  British.  —  From  this  source 
Washington  secured  a  much  needed  supply  of  materials,  and 
early  in  the  next  year  he  was  ready  for  action.  He  occupied 
Dorchester  Heights  to  the  south  of  Boston,  thus  com 
pletely  blocking  the  British  on  the  land  side.  The  Brit 
ish,  realizing  their  desperate  plight,  made  ready  their  ships 
in  March,  1776,  and  sailed  away  to  Halifax,  leaving  the 
Americans  in  possession  of  the  field. 


142         THE   HISTORY  OF  1  IE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

The  Quebec  Expedition.  —  While  Washington  was  pre 
paring  for  this  great  stroke  at  Boston,  a  terrible  disaster  to 
American  soldiers  happened  far  to  the  northward.  Think 
ing  that  the  French  in  Canada  would  be  glad  to  get  rid  of 
British  rule,  the  Americans  in  the  fall  of  1775  fitted  out  two 
expeditions  to  invade  that  country.  One  under  Benedict 
Arnold  made  its  way  through  the  wilds  of  Maine  to  Quebec. 
The  other  under  Montgomery  went  up  through  the  Lake 
Champlain  region  to  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  and  thence 
down  the  river  to  join  Arnold  (see  map,  p.  148).  On  a  day 
in  the  dead  of  winter,  when  a  fierce  snowstorm  was  raging, 
the  Americans  attacked  the  British  garrison,  but  were  beaten 
off  with  terrible  loss.  Montgomery  was  killed  ;  Arnold  was 
badly  wounded ;  and  the  troops  suffered  cruelly.  This 
expedition  cost  in  all  at  least  five  thousand  American 
soldiers,  and  put  an  end  to  all  hopes  of  stirring  up  a  revolu 
tion  in  Canada. 

The  Declaration  of  Independence  (July  4,  1776).  — Not 
withstanding  the  failure  in  Canada,  the  British  defeat  at 
Boston  heartened  the  Americans,  and  the  Continental 
Congress,  sitting  at  Philadelphia,  decided  to  issue  a  Declara 
tion  of  Independence  from  Great  Britain.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  war  most  of  the  leaders  had  announced  their  loyalty 
to  the  mother  country  and  had  expressed  the  hope  that 
good  feeling  might  be  established  once  more.  After  blood 
was  shed,  however,  the  boldest  spirits  determined  on,  inde 
pendence  and  war  to  the  end.  This  was  a  dangerous  step. 
Many  of  the  Americans  did  not  wish  to  break  away  from 
their  allegiance  to  King  George  and  were  prepared  to  resist 
the  declaration  of  independence  by  the  Continental  Con 
gress.  Moreover,  if  the  Americans  were  defeated,  the  men 
who  declared  independence  would  doubtless  be  speedily 
hanged  as  "  traitors." 

Thomas   Paine' s   Pamphlet.  —  It  required    great  courage, 


THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 


THE  WAR   FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE         143 

then,  to  take  the  fateful  step.  In  order  to  stir  the  country 
up  to  a  high  fervor  in  support  of  independence,  Thomas  Paine 
published  in  January,  1776,  his  famous  pamphlet,  "  Com 
mon  Sense/'  which  was  sold  by  the  thousands  and  read  in 
taverns  and  by  the  firesides  where  the  people  were  meeting 
to  talk  about  the  impending  conflict.  He  urged  his  country 
men  to  take  heart,  saying  : 

Arms  as  the  last  resort  decide  the  contest.  .  .  .  The  sun  never 
shone  on  a  cause  of  greater  worth.  'Tis  not  the  affair  of  a  City, 
County,  a  Province,  or  a  Kingdom ;  but  of  a  Continent  —  of  at 
least  one  eighth  part  of  the  habitable  Globe.  ...  O !  ye  that 
love  mankind ;  ye  that  dare  oppose  not  only  the  tyranny  but  the 
tyrant,  stand  forth  !  Every  spot  of  the  old  world  is  overrun  with 
oppression.  Freedom  hath  been  hunted  round  the  globe.  Asia 
and  Africa  have  long  expelled  her.  Europe  regards  her  like  a 
stranger,  and  England  hath  given  her  warning  to  depart !  O ! 
receive  the  fugitive,  and  prepare  in  time  an  asylum  for  mankind  ! 

This  was  the  clear  trumpet  call  for  heroic  action. 

Thomas  Jefferson  s  Work;  the  Declaration  Signed.  — 
Fired  by  the  zeal  which  animated  Paine,  and  undaunted  by 
paltry  fears,  the  leaders  in  Congress,  acting  on  the  motion 
of  the  Virginia  delegates,  renounced  allegiance  to  their  king. 
The  task  of  drawing  up  the  declaration  was  given  to  a  young 
Virginian,  Thomas  Jefferson,  who  quickly  responded.  When 
his  draft  was  laid  before  Congress,  angry  debates  ensued. 
Many  were  timid  and  others  thought  the  plan  unwise ; 
but  at  length  on  July  4,  1776,  after  some  slight  changes,  it 
was  adopted.  The  glad  tidings  of  American  independence 
were  rung  out  to  the  world  from  the  old  bell  that  hung  in 
the  belfry  of  the  hall  in  which  Congress  sat,  and  couriers 
were  sent  out  in  every  direction  bearing  copies  of  the 
Declaration. 

This  truly  immortal  document  set  forth  in  a  few  sim 
ple  words  the  lofty  principles  that  all  men  are  created  equal 


144        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

and  that  governments  derive  their  just  powers  from  the 
consent  of  the  governed.  They  were  a  prophecy  of  the 
future  in  America,  of  a  better  and  freer  country.  They 
cheered  the  soldiers  who  were  engaged  in  a  great  war, 


From  a  recent  photograph 


INDEPENDENCE  HALL,  PHILADELPHIA 


giving  their  lives  that  the  "nation  so  conceived  and  so  dedi 
cated  "  might  long  endure. 

III.   THE  MIDDLE  STATES  CAMPAIGNS  AND  THE  FRENCH 

ALLIANCE 

Battles  of  Long  Island  and  White  Plains. — As  soon  as  the 
British  left  Boston,  Washington  with  a  large  body  of  men  set 
out  for  New  York,  where,  it  was  evident,  the  enemy  would 
make  an  attack  sooner  or  later.  In  August,  1776,  the 
British  began  to  land  troops  on  Long  Island.  In  time 
fortune  favored  them.  They  cut  the  American  army  into 


THE  WAR   FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE 


'45 


two  parts,  captured  one  section  of  it,  and  forced  the  other 
to  retire  across  the  river  to  New  York  City.  "  Our  situa 
tion,"  wrote  Washington  at  this  time,  "  is  truly  distressing. 
The  check  our  detachment  sustained  .  .  .  has  dispirited  too 
great  a  proportion  of  our  troops  and  filled  their  minds  with 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY  WAR  IN  THE  NORTH 

apprehension  and  despair."  From  the  city  the  American 
army  retreated  rapidly  northv/ard  to  White  Plains,  where 
an  unsuccessful  stand  was  made  against  the  British. 
Things  now  looked  dark  indeed  for  the  American  cause. 
Hundreds  of  militiamen,  thinking  all  was  lost,  deserted  and 
went  home.  The  Continental  Congress  at  Philadelphia  was 
thoroughly  frightened.  Turning  over  the  entire  control 
of  the  war  to  Washington,  the  members  left  Philadelphia, 
where  the  British  soldiers  were  daily  expected. 


146         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

Retreat  through  New  Jersey;  Victories  at  Trenton  and 
Princeton  (December,  1776). — Although  his  army  was 
melting  away  and  nearly  everybody  around  him  was  dis 
couraged,  Washington  kept  faith.  After  the  unhappy  con 
flict  in  New  York,  he  took  a  part  of  his  troops  across  the 
Hudson  River  and  retreated  rapidly  southward  through 
New  Jersey  into  Pennsylvania.  Having  rested  his  men  for 
a  while,  Washington  made  a  bold  stroke  which  served  to 
revive  the  hopes  of  the  downcast  Americans.  Across  the 
river  at  Trenton,  a  few  miles  away,  there  was  an  army  of 
"Hessians";  that  is,  German  soldiers  from  Hesse  who  had 
been  hired  out  by  their  ruler  to  George  III  to  fight  under 
British  command  against  the  Americans.  On  Christmas 
night,  1776,  Washington  and  his  men  set  out  in  a  snow 
storm,  made  their  way  through  the  ice  floes  which  swept 
down  the  Delaware,  and  the  next  morning  surprised  the 
British  forces  at  Trenton,  capturing  more  than  a  thousand 
prisoners.  Leaving  campfires  burning  to  mislead  other 
British  troops  who  were  coming  to  the  aid  of  the  Trenton 
forces,  Washington  hastened  away  toward  Princeton,  where 
he  defeated  several  British  regiments  on  their  way  south. 

These  exploits  greatly  cheered  the  patriots.  The  Hessian 
prisoners  were  marched  through  the  streets  of  Philadelphia 
amid  great  rejoicing. 

Defeats  at  Brandywine  and  Germantown;  Philadelphia 
Captured  by  the  British  (1777). --Then  followed  a  lull 
in  the  fighting,  until  the  news  came  that  the  British  com 
mander,  General  Howe,  was  preparing  to  capture  Phila 
delphia  by  an  expedition  from  the  direction  of  the  sea. 
Thereupon  Washington  sought  to  prevent  the  fall  of  Phila 
delphia,  but  his  'efforts  utterly  failed.  In  two  battles, 
Brandywine  and  Germantown,  the  Americans  were  sadly 
beaten,  and  the  city  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British  in 
the  summer  of  1777. 


THE   WAR   FOR  AMERICAN   INDEPENDENCE         147 

The  Winter  at  Valley  Forge  (1777-1778). -- The  winter 
which  followed  has  been  justly  called  the  "  darkest  hour  " 
in  the  War  for  Independence.  With  his  defeated  troops 
Washington  withdrew  to  the  northward  and  went  into  camp 
at  Valley  Forge.  The  hardships  of  the  men  during  that 
dreadful  winter  cannot  be  described  in  words.  The  soldiers 


WASHINGTON  AT  VALLEY  FORGE 
The  darkest  hour  in  the  War  for  Independence." 


From  a  painting 


were  in  rags  and  were  half  starved  all  the  time.  Hundreds 
were  without  shoes  and  blankets  and  seldom  did  they  have 
anything  but  the  coarsest  food.  Lafayette,  the  young 
Frenchman  who  had  come  over  the  sea  to  dedicate  himself 
to  the  cause  of  liberty  in  America,  wrote  of  Valley  Forge  : 

The  unfortunate  soldiers  were  in  want  of  everything;  they  had 
neither  coats,  hats,  shirts,  nor  shoes;  their  feet  and  legs  froze 
until  they  became  black.  .  .  .  The  army  frequently  remained 
whole  days  without  provisions,  and  the  patient  endurance  of  both 
officers  and  men  was  a  miracle. 


148         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

Only  an  undying  faith  in  the  justice  of  their  cause  and  in 
the  wisdom  and  ability  of  Washington  kept  the  remnants 
of  an  army  together.  In  spite  of  their  hardships,  however, 
they  prepared  for  battle.  They  drilled  regularly  and  were 


BURGOYNE'S  EXPEDITION 

gradually  made  into  an  efficient  fighting  force,  under  the 
direction  of  Baron  Steuben,  a  German  officer  who  had  given 
his  services  to  the  Americans. 

Burgoyne's  Expedition;  Bennington  and  Saratoga 
(1777).  —  While  the  fortunes  of  war  were  going  against 
the  Americans  in  Pennsylvania,  gains  made  to  the 


THE  WAR   FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE         149 

northward  had  a  very  decided  effect  on  the  outcome  of 
the  struggle.  It  seemed  to  the  British  leaders  that  it 
would  be  good  strategy  to  cut  New  England  off  from  the 
rest  of  the  country.  In  June,  1777,  they  sent  General  Bur- 
goyne  southward  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain  to  the  head 
waters  of  the  Hudson,  with  a  view  to  taking  Albany  and 
later  joining  Howe  in  New  York.  For  a  time  Burgoyne 
prospered.  He  captured  Ticonderoga  and  turned  to  the 
Hudson  Valley.  Then  his  troubles  began.  A  division  sent 
into  Vermont  to  collect  supplies  was  defeated  and  captured 
at  Bennington  by  the  Vermonters,  or  "  Green  Mountain 
Boys/'  under  General  Stark.  Food  supplies  ran  low.  Find 
ing  himself  hemmed  in  by  the  Americans  and  seeing  no 
signs  of  relief  from  the  South,  on  October  17,  1777,  Bur 
goyne  surrendered  at  Saratoga.  The  American  commander, 
General  Gates,  had  superseded  the  real  victor,  General 
Schuyler,  in  time  to  receive  the  honors. 

The  Alliance  with  France  (1778). --The  defeat  and  sur 
render  of  Burgoyne  marked  a  turning  point  in  the  War  for 
Independence.  As  early  as  December,  1776,  the  American 
mission  at  Paris,  headed  by  Benjamin  Franklin,  had  sought 
aid  from  the  government  of  France.  •  Many  liberal  men 
in  France,  men  who  were  preparing  the  way  for  the  great 
Revolution  so  soon  to  follow  in  that  country,  expressed  deep 
sympathy  with  the  American  cause  and  greeted  Franklin 
with  warmth  and  encouragement.  But  the  king,  Louis 
XVI,  was  cautious.  Naturally  he  was  not  interested  in 
helping  to  establish  a  republic  in  the  New  World.  He 
was  thinking  rather  of  reducing  the  power  of  Great  Britain 
and  humbling  the  country  that  had  twenty-five  years  before 
broken  the  empire  of  France  in  India  and  North.  America. 

When  he  saw  that  the  American  colonists  were  strong 
enough  to  give  some  promise  of  winning,  he  cast  his  lot 
with  them.  In  February,  1778,  he  made  a  treaty  with  the 


150        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

United  States  agreeing  to  furnish  men,  money,  warships, 
and  supplies  to  the  struggling  young  nation.  Never  was 
aid  more  timely.  It  is  generally  believed  that  without  the 
help  of  France  the  rule  of  Great  Britain  would  have  been 
restored  in  America  and  the  patriots  would  have  paid  the 
penalty  meted  out  to  "rebels."  We  are  certain  that  French 
aid  guaranteed  a  victory  that  had  before  been  in  doubt. 

The  British  Leave  Philadelphia.  The  Battle  of  Mon- 
mouth  (June  28,  1778). --When  the  British  heard  of  the 
alliance  between  France  and  the  United  States,  they  de 
cided  to  leave  Philadelphia  and  concentrate  their  forces  in 
New  York.  On  their  way  northward  they  were  sharply 
attacked  by  Washington  at  Monmouth  and  would  have 
been  decisively  defeated  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  treach 
ery  of  one  of  his  officers,  General  Charles  Lee.  Never 
theless  the  battle  had  the  effect  of  a  victory  and  brought 
the  fighting  in  the  North  to  an  end  for  a  time.  This 
enabled  Washington  to  give  his  attention  to  the  ever  pres 
ent  task  of  strengthening  the  army  and  collecting  supplies 
-  a  task  so  discouraging  that  only  one  with  his  faith  and 
courage  and  patience  could  have  met  it. 

Treason  of  Benedict  Arnold.  — To  all  Washington's  difficulties 
was  added  the  treason  of  a  brave  and  trusted  officer,  Benedict 
Arnold.  Arnold  had  distinguished  himself  at  Quebec  and 
Saratoga,  and  thought  that  he  was  entitled  to  more  rapid 
promotion  than  he  received.  Unable  to  put  aside  his  feel 
ing  that  injustice  had  been  done  to  him,  he  decided  in 
September,  1780,  to  betray  his  country  by  negotiating  with 
the  British  for  the  surrender  of  West  Point,  which  was 
under  his  command.  Major  Andre,  of  the  British  Army, 
was  selected  to  carry  out  the  arrangements.  He  was  on 
his  way  back  to  the  British  lines  when  he  was  caught  at 
Tarrytown  by  the  Americans.  The  fatal  papers  were  found 
in  Andre's  boots  and  he  was  hanged  as  a  spy,  Washington 


THE   WAR   FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE         151 


sternly  refusing  to  grant  pardon.     Arnold,  hearing  that  his 
treason  was  exposed,  fled  to  a  British  warship  in  the  Hudson 


Cowpens 


NvKrty-Six    \    CamdenP* 
o  S — ^_^^    ^v  S 

s  o  u  TH\     C(A 

Augusta^ 


Char/leston 


C 
Savanlnahl 


ape  Fea/ 


A       T      L      A      N      T       I      C 


OCEAN 


'SCALE   OF   MILES 


0  25  50  75 

Wms.  Eng.  Co..  N.Y. 


SCENE  OF  THE  REVOLUTIONARY  WAR  IN  THE  SOUTH 

River.    Long  afterward  he  died  in  neglect  in  London,  dressed, 
at  his  own  request,  in  his  old  American  uniform. 


152         THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

IV.   THE   SOUTHERN  CAMPAIGNS  ;  THE  WAR  ON  THE  SEA 

AND    IN   THE    WEST 

Southern  Resistance  to  Great  Britain.  —  Although  Lex 
ington  and  Bunker  Hill,  by  long  tradition,  occupy  a  high 
place  in  the  history  of  the  American  Revolution,  it  must 
not  be  forgotten  that  the  southern  states  were  equally  vig 
orous  with  Massachusetts  in  opposing  the  policy  of  Great 
Britain.  In  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  patriot  bands  had 
been  hurriedly  formed  when  the  news  of  the  Stamp  Act  was 
received,  and  were  quickly  revived  to  resist  the  tea  duty. 

As  early  as  1771,  some  North  Carolina  citizens  had  been 
hanged  for  resisting  British  officers.  Nearly  a  month 
before  the  battle  of  Lexington,  Patrick  Henry  had  called 
his  countrymen  in  Virginia  to  arms.  In  May,  1775,  a 
group  of  patriots  in  Mecklenburg  County,  North  Carolina, 
had  declared  their  independence  by  proclaiming  that  all 
British  military  and  civil  authority  was  at  an  end. 

Men  from  the  South  were  side  by  side  with  men  from  the 
North  at  Valley  Forge,  Brandy  wine,  and  Monmouth. 
Although  the  great  ports,  Boston,  New  York,  and  Phila 
delphia,  which  were  so  accessible  from  the  sea,  were  the 
objects  of  special  attention  on  the  part  of  the  British,  the 
South  was  by  no  means  neglected.  Indeed,  the  evacuation 
of  Boston,  the  defeat  at  Saratoga,  and  the  retreat  from 
Philadelphia,  made  holding  the  South  all  the  more  impor 
tant  to  King  George. 

British  Capture  Savannah  and  Charleston.  —  In  1776 
a  British  fleet  attacked  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  and 
a  vain  attempt  was  made  to  land  forces  and  capture 
the  city.  Two  years  after  this  failure  the  British  took 
Savannah.  In  1780  they  successfully  assaulted  Charles 
ton,  this  time  by  land.  Elated  by  this  victory,  their 
general,  Clinton,  returned  to  New  York,  leaving  General 


THE  WAR   FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE         153 

Cornwallis  in  command,  with  instructions  to  overrun  and 
hold  the  South. 

Cornwallis  against  Greene  and  Lafayette.  —  For  a  while 
Cornwallis  was  fortunate.  He  defeated  the  Americans  under 
General  Gates  at  Camden ;  and,  in  spite  of  severe  losses  at 
King's  Mountain  and  Cowpens,  he  seemed  about  to  conquer 
the  Carolinas.  He  defeated  General  Nathanael  Greene  at 
Guilford,  North  Carolina,  in  1781,  but  so  many  of  his  men 
were  killed  that  he  gave  up  the  idea  of  taking  the  interior 
regions.  Remaining  close  to  the  coast  line,  Cornwallis 
marched  northward  into  Virginia  in  1781  to  attack  the 
Americans  assembled  there  under  Lafayette.  The  British 
general  announced  that  he  was  going  to  capture  "  the  boy," 
as  he  called  Lafayette. 

The  Siege  of  Yorktown;  Cornwallis  Surrenders.  --When 
Cornwallis  marched  boldly  into  Virginia  and  entrenched 
his  army  at  Yorktown  on  the  peninsula  between  the  York 
and  the  James  rivers,  he  had  not  calculated  on  the  plans 
of  the  French  and  Americans,  now  firm  allies.  France 
sent  over  large  forces  under  Rochambeau,  which  joined 
Washington's  troops  near  New  York,  and  shortly  after 
ward  a  strong  fleet  under  De  Grasse  was  dispatched  to 
America.  When  the  news  of  CornwalhVs  operations 
reached  Washington,  he  decided  to  take  the  French  and 
American  forces  south  to  meet  the  new  danger,  pretending 
all  the  time  that  he  was  planning  to  attack  the  British 
in  New  York.  Meanwhile  the  French  fleet  blockaded 
Cornwallis  on  the  seaward  side. 

As  a  result  of  this  combined  expedition  Cornwallis  was 
completely  surrounded  at  Yorktown,  and  on  October  19, 
1781,  compelled  to  surrender.  As  the  British  soldiers 
marched  out  to  lay  down  their  arms,  the  bands  played  the 
famous  old  tune,  ' '  The  World  Turned  Upside  Down," 
which  was  entirely  fitting.  British  rule  in  the  United 


i54         THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

States  was  at  an  end  forever,  although  King  George's  men 
still  held  New  York  City  and  Charleston. 

In  looking  over  the  achievements  of  the  patriot  armies  we 
do  not  find  very  many  battles  won  by  American  soldiers. 
The  British  were  worn  down  by  long  marches  and  want  of 
supplies  as  well  as  by  fighting.  It  was  only  when  they  saw 
the  American  forces  supplemented  by  French  regulars  and 
the  French  fleet  that  they  gave  up  the  struggle. 

War  at  Sea.  Famous  Exploits  of  John  Paul  Jones. — 
Although  the  decisive  campaigns  of  the  Revolution  were 


ft, 


From  an  old  print 


John  Paul  Jones  with  his  flagship  Bonhonme  Richard  engaged  the  British  frigate  Serapis 
in  battle,  and  after  a  desperate  fight  captured  it. 

along  the  seaboard,  there  are  two  aspects  of  the  war  which 
must  not  be  overlooked.  The  first  of  these  was  the  war  at 
sea.  Holland  and  Spain  joined  France  in  the  war  on  Great 
Britain,  and  pitted  their  navies  against  British  sea  power. 
The  Continental  Congress,  having  no  regular  navy  of  its  own, 
granted  letters  of  authority  to  private  shipowners,  empower 
ing  them  to  equip  vessels  of  war  to  prey  on  British  com 
merce.  One  famous  captain,  John  Paul  Jones,  fitted  out 


THE  WAR   FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE         155 

some  vessels  in  French  ports  and  sailed  the  coast  of  England 
and  Scotland,  destroying  shipping  wherever  he  could  find  it. 
In  1779,  with  his  flagship  Bonhomme  Richard,  he  engaged 
the  British  frigate  Serapis  and  after  a  desperate  fight  cap 
tured  it.  These  brave  deeds  at  sea  by  Jones  and  other 
commanders,  like  Captain  John  Barry,  of  equal  fame, 


THE  EXPEDITION  OF  GEORGE  ROGERS  CLARK 

encouraged  the  patriots  in  America,  but  they  contributed 
little  to  the  final  outcome. 

George  Rogers  Clark  in  the  Great  Northwest.  —  While 
John  Paul  Jones  was  playing  his  part  on  the  sea,  a  young 
Virginian,  George  Rogers  Clark,  was  playing  another  beyond 
the  Alleghenies.  During  many  years  of  exploration  beyond 
the  mountains,  he  had  learned  the  value  of  that  country, 
and  when  the  war  broke  out  he  was  determined  to  save  it 
for  the  United  States  by  destroying  the  British  posts  out 


156         THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

there.  With  some  help  from  the  Virginia  government  and 
a  small  body  of  picked  riflemen,  he  journeyed  from  the  sea 
board  down  the  Ohio  River  to  the  Mississippi  and  up  that 
river  to  Cahokia,  taking  Kaskaskia  on  the  way.  Then  he 
struck  back  across  the  "  drowned  lands  "  of  Illinois  to  the 
British  post  at  Vincennes  (Indiana),  which  he  captured  with 
out  a  blow.  When  the  time  to  negotiate  peace  came,  the 
Great  Northwest  was  readily  claimed  for  the  United 
States.  The  French  had  sown,  the  British  had  reaped,  the 
Americans  had  garnered. 

V.     THE  TREATY  OF   PEACE  ;    REASONS  FOR  THE  SUCCESS 
OF  THE  AMERICAN  CAUSE 

The  Treaty  of  Paris  (1783).  —  It  took  nearly  two  years 
after  the  victory  at  Yorktown  to  complete  the  peace  nego 
tiations.  Benjamin  Franklin,  John  Adams,  and  John  Jay 
were  instructed  in  1781  to  discuss  the  terms  of  settlement 
with  the  agents  of  Great  Britain  at  Paris ;  but  it  was  not 
until  September,  1783,  that  an  agreement  was  finally  reached. 
By  this  treaty  the  independence  of  the  thirteen  United 
States  was  acknowledged  by  Great  Britain  and  the  bound 
aries  of  the  new  country  were  laid  out.  It  was  agreed 
that  the  United  States  should  extend  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Mississippi  River  and  from  the  Great  Lakes  down  to  the 
thirty-first  parallel  of  latitude.  Canada  was  retained  by  the 
British  and  Florida  was  given  to  the  Spaniards,  who  had 
joined  the  French  in  the  war  on  Great  Britain.  Thus  the 
United  States,  endowed  with  a  rich  heritage,  was  admitted 
to  a  place  among  the  independent  nations  of  the  earth. 

Washington.  --In  the  year  that  peace  was  concluded, 
Washington  resigned  his  office  as  Commander-in-Chief  and 
retired  to  his  beautiful  home  at  Mount  Vernon,  hoping  to 
enjoy  a  well-earned  rest.  For  more  than  thirty  years  he 
had  carried  burdens  of  civil  and  military  life.  In  1751,  at 


120°       Loneitude       110°          West  100°  from  90°      Greenwich      80° 


NORTH  AMERICA  ACCORDING  TO  THE  TREATY  OF  1783 


THE  WAR   FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE         157 

the  early  age  of  nineteen,  he  had  been  appointed  to  a  post 
in  the  Virginia  army;  he  had  served  capably  and  honorably 
in  the  campaigns  against  the  French  in  the  West;  he  had 
been  a  member  of  the  Virginia  legislature.  When  the 
Revolution  broke  out  he  was  elected  to  the  Continental 
Congress  and  then  given  the  arduous  task  of  commanding 
the  patriot  army. 

Seldom,  if  ever,  in  the  history  of  the  world  has  another 
man  borne  such  heavy  responsibilities.  *  He  had  to  plan 
and  lead  in  the  conduct  of  battles  in  the  field  —  that  is  a 
general's  duty.  But  Washington  did  more.  He  wa's  forced, 
by  the  failure  of  the  Congress,  to  help  secure  troops,  to 
keep  together  a  straggling  army  of  militiamen  and  volun 
teers,  to  raise  money,  to  collect  supplies,  to  cheer  his  men 
by  precept  and  example,  and  to  suffer  unnecessary  woes 
with  them.  Then  he  had  to  turn  aside  from  military 
affairs  to  guide  and  lead  Congress  in  the  management  of 
public  business.  In  defeat  at  Long  Island,  White  Plains, 
Brandywine,  and  Germantown,  Washington  never  de 
spaired.  His  courage  and  faith  kept  the  patriot  cause  alive 
when  others  gave  up  hope.  He  was  the  inspiration  of  the 
Revolutionary  army. 

No  wonder  that  after  victory  he  looked  forward  to  the 
deep  joy  of  peace  at  home.  But  he  was  not  to  have  rest. 
Soon  he  was  called  away  to  help  draft  a  Constitution 
for  his  country,  and  then  to  serve  for  eight  long  years  as 
president.  In  1797  he  laid  down  his  public  burdens,  only 
to  be  summoned,  a  few  months  later,  to  command  the 
army  again  in  view  of  a  threatened  break  with  France. 
When  he  died  in  1799,  the  whole  nation  could  truly  say 
that  he  was  "  first  in  war,  first  in  peace,  and  first  in  the 
hearts  of  his  countrymen." 

Aid  from  Distinguished  Foreigners.  — Americans  have  always 
cherished  the  memory  of  foreign  friends  who  aided  them  by 


158        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN 


serving  in  the  armies  of  the  Revolution.  From  France 
came  Lafayette;  from  Poland,  Kosciuszko ;  from  Bavaria, 
DeKalb  ;  and  from  Prussia,  Steuben. 

The  Civilians'  Part  in  the  Revolution.  Benjamin  Frank 
lin. —  Without  detracting  from  the  valor  of  the  men  and 

officers  who  braved  the  dangers  of 
the  battlefield,  we  should  add  that 
they  were  not  wholly  responsible 
for  the  glorious  outcome.  To  the 
able  representatives  abroad  who 
won  for  the  United  States  the  sup 
port  of  France  and  the  aid  of 
Holland  great  credit  is  due.  Ben 
jamin  Franklin,  the  printer  from 
Philadelphia,  found  fame  through 
out  the  world  as  a  diplomat,  deep 
thinker,  and  man  of  science,  and 
secured  the  confidence  of  statesmen  in  Europe. 

Robert  Morris. — The  civilians  also  who  raised  the  money 
and  the  supplies  for  the  army  must  not  be  forgotten. 
Robert  Morris,  "the  patriot  financier"  of  Pennsylvania, 
labored  day  and  night  with  all  his  great  ability  to  find 
funds  to  pay  the  bills  of  an  almost  bankrupt  govern 
ment.  If  it  be  said  that  their  efforts  were  not  always  suc 
cessful,  it  must  be  remembered  that  their  resources  were 
slight  and  their  trials  severe.  Finding  it  impossible  to  collect 
enough  gold  and  silver,  the  Continental  Congress  and'  the 
governments  of  the  states  issued  large  sums  of  paper  money. 
Such  notes  were  mere  promises  to  pay  and  fell  rapidly 
in  value,  until  the  best  of  them  were  only  worth  a  few 
cents  on  the  dollar.  Worthless  as  this  paper  was,  the 
farmers  and  merchants  accepted  it  in  return  for  supplies 
and  trusted  to  an  independent  nation  to  redeem  its 
promises. 


THE  WAR   FOR  AMERICAN   INDEPENDENCE        159 

The  Work  of  the  Women.  —  Women,  too,  did  their  full 
share.  They  made  munitions,  using  their  pewter  dishes 
and  cooking  utensils  for  bullets ;  they  spun  and  wove 
and  made  clothing  and  hospital  supplies ;  they  tilled 
the  fields  and  garnered  the  crops  while  the  men  were 
away;  they  carried  supplies  to  the  army,  often  at  the 
risk  of  their  lives.  On  Washington's  call  they  gave 
gold  and  silver,  jewels,  and  plate  to  be  melted  down  and 
turned  into  coin ;  they  begged  money  for  the  army  from 
door  to  door ;  they  braved  their  lot  as  refugees  fleeing  be 
fore  British  soldiers ;  and  not  a  few  of  them  even  served  in 
the  ranks. 

The  spirit  of  these  women  is  shown  in  a  letter  written  at 
the  time  by  a  woman  in  Philadelphia  to  a  friend  in  the 
army : 

I  have  retrenched  every  superfluous  expense  in  my  table  and 
family;  tea  I  have  not  drunk  since  last  Christmas  nor  bought  a 
new  cap  or  gown  since  your  defeat  at  Lexington;  and  what  I 
never  did  before,  have  learned  to  knit  and  am  now  making  stock 
ings  of  American  wool.  ...  I  have  the  pleasure  to  assure  you 
that  these  are  the  sentiments  of  all  my  sister  Americans.  They 
have  sacrificed  assemblies,  parties  of  pleasure,  tea-drinking,  and 
finery  to  that  great  spirit  of  patriotism  that  actuates  all  degrees 
of  people  throughout  this  extensive  continent. 

Maintaining  the  Armies.  —  It  was  hard  for  the  patriots  to 
keep  up  the  military  strength  of  the  country.  At  the  open 
ing  of  the  Revolution  the  armies  were  composed  of  men  who 
volunteered  for  a  few  months  at  a  time  and  were  always 
leaving  in  large  bodies  just  when  they  were  needed  most. 
The  Continental  Congress,  made  up  of  civilians  who  knew 
little  about  war  and  were  afraid  of  strong  military  power, 
did  not  do  anything  to  mend  matters  until,  confronted  with 
disaster,  they  saw  that  the  militia  system  had  broken 
down.  Then  they  yielded  to  Washington's  demand  for  a 


160        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

standing  army  of  regulars,  enlisted  for  the  war  and  paid, 
according  to  a  definite  understanding,  in  money  and  lands. 
Even  this  plan  was  only  partly  carried  out,  owing  to  the 
jealousy  of  the  states  and  the  dislike  of  the  militiamen  for 
long  service.  Not  once  during  the  Revolution  was  there 
an  adequate  supply  of  trained  men  equipped  with  necessary 
war  materials.  Had  there  been  a  regular  army  of  half  the 
number  of  men  who  actually  served  in  the  Revolutionary 
cause,  the  war  could  have  been  shortened  by  years.  As 
Washington  himself  said  : 

To  bring  men  to  be  well  acquainted  with  the  duties  of  a 
soldier  requires  time.  .  .  .  To  expect  the  same  service  from  raw 
and  undisciplined  recruits  as  from  veteran  soldiers  is  to  expect 
what  never  did  and  perhaps  never  will  happen. 

The  Tories.  -  -  The  trials  of  the  patriots  were  made  all 
the  more  difficult  by  the  constant  presence  of  enemies  in  their 
midst.  As  we  have  pointed  out,  no  small  number  of  Ameri 
cans  were  loyal  to  the  king  and  mother  country  all  during 
the  War.  They  gave  aid  and  money  and  supplies  to  the 
British  commanders  at  every  opportunity.  While  Washing 
ton  and  his  heroic  band  were  freezing  and  starving  at  Valley 
Forge,  Tories  were  wining  and  dining  with  British  officers  in 
New  York  and  Philadelphia.  They  laughed  to  scorn  the 
"  low  demagogues  "  and  "  pettifogging  lawyers  "  -  -  as 
they  called  the  Revolutionists  —  who  were  trying  to  make  a 
new  nation  in  North  America,  and  they  did  all  the  damage 
they  could  to  the  American  cause. 

Really  there  was  a  civil  war  as  well  as  a  revolution,  and 
naturally  the  most  bitter  feeling  arose  between  the  two 
parties.  The  patriots,  deeply  angered  at  those  who  re 
mained  loyal  to  George  III,  seized  their  property,  im 
prisoned  many,  and  drove  hundreds  out  of  the  country. 

When  at  length  the  war  was  over,  America  was  free  from 


THE  WAR   FOR  AMERICAN   INDEPENDENCE         161 

British  rule ;  but  it  was  a  divided,  weakened,  and  impover 
ished  country.  Order  had  to  be  restored,  many  wrongs 
righted,  damages  repaired,  farms  and  homes  and  trade  re 
established,  and  debts  paid.  A  great  work  lay  before 
the  American  people  when  in  1783  the  news  of  final  peace 
spread  from  hamlet  to  hamlet.  Cheered  by  the  success  of 
the  Revolution  and  inspired  by  a  faith  in  the  future,  the 
country  took  up  its  new  responsibilities. 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.    Why  did  the  British  authorities  send  troops  to  Lexington 
and   Concord  ?     How  did   it  happen  that  the  undrilled   farmers 
who  responded  to  the  "Lexington  alarm"  could  do  so  much  dam 
age  to  the  British  troops  ? 

II.  I.    What  is  meant  by  a  siege?     Study  the  map  of  Boston 
arid  vicinity  and  explain  why  the  city  could  be  so  easily  besieged 
from  the  land.     Could  supplies  be  entirely  cut  off  from  the  British 
soldiers  in  Boston  ?     Why  or  why  not  ?        2.    Why  is  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill  usually  looked  upon  as  an  American  victory,  although 
the    earthworks    were    finally    captured   by  the    British    troops  ? 
3.    What  reasons  can  you  give  for  the  action  of  the  British  com 
mander  in  withdrawing  his  troops  from  Boston  and  leaving  the 
city  to  the  Americans  ?       4.    What  led  the  Americans  to  make 
the  unfortunate  attempt  to  capture  Quebec  ?        5.    The  war  began 
in  April,  1775;   the  colonists  did  not  declare  their  independence 
until   more  than  a   year  afterward.     Explain  the  reasons  for  this 
delay.        6.    Who  wrote  the  Declaration  of  Independence  ?     Read 
it  (see  Appendix,  p.  647)  and  tell  what  arguments  impress  you  as 
most    convincing    reasons    for    breaking    away    from  the  mother 
country. 

III.  i.    Why  did  the  British,  after  their  failure    at    Boston, 
choose  New  York  as  their  next  point  of  attack  ?       2.    Trace  on  a 
map   the    movements   of   Washington    after   the    defeat    of   the 
Americans    at   the  battle  of  Long  Island.        3.    Why  were   the 
battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton  important  victories  for  the  Amer 
icans  ?       4.    Note  the  location  of  the  battle  of  the  Brandywine. 
Why    did    the    British    forces    approach  Philadelphia    from    this 


1 62         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

direction  ?  5.  Locate  Valley  Forge  on  the  map.  Why  has  the 
winter  at  Valley  Forge  been  called  the  "darkest  hour  of  the  Rev 
olution''  ?  6.  What  was  the  aim  of  the  British  leaders  in  plan 
ning  the  Burgoyne  expedition  ?  Why  was  this  a  more  difficult 
venture  for  the  British  troops  than  the  capture  of  New  York 
and  Philadelphia  ?  The  battles  around  Saratoga  are  recognized 
as  among  the  most  decisive  battles  of  the  world's  history. 
Why  so  important  ?  7.  Who  secured  the  alliance  with  France  ? 
What  were  the  consequences  of  this  alliance  ?  What  other  foreign 
aid  did  the  Americans  have  ? 

IV.  i.    Describe  the  southern  campaigns.        2.    Why  was  the 
expedition  of  George  Rogers  Clark  an  important  event  of  the 
war  ?     Trace  on  a  map  the  route  of  this  expedition.        3.    When, 
where,  and  how  did  the  active  fighting  of  the  Revolution  end  ? 

V.  i.    When  and  where  was  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  ? 
What  were  its  terms  ?       2.    What  were  Washington's    greatest 
services  to  the  cause  of  American  independence  ?        3.    Who  was 
Robert   Morris   and  what  part   did  he  play  in  the   Revolution? 
4.    What  name  was  given   to  the  Americans  who  sympathized 
with  England  in  the  war  ?     How  were  these  people  treated  by 
the  American  patriots  ? 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

i.  Select  one  or  more  of  the  following  topics  for  further  study 
and  for  report  to  the  class  : 

Lexington  and  Concord:  See  Coffin's  "Boys  of  Seventy-Six," 
ch.  i;  Hart's  "Camps  and  Firesides  of  the  Revolution,"  pp.  257- 
260. 

The  Quebec  Expedition:  See  Coffin's  "Boys  of  Seventy-Six," 
ch.  v. 

The  Capture  of  Stony  Point :  See  Roosevelt  and  Lodge's  "Hero 
Tales  from  American  History,"  pp.  81-89;  Coffin's  "Boys  of 
Seventy-Six,"  ch.  xxiii ;  Hart's  "Camps  and  Firesides  of  the 
Revolution,"  pp.  283-285. 

King's  Mountain:  See  Roosevelt  and  Lodge's  "Hero  Tales," 
pp.  71-78;  Coffin's  "Boys  of  Seventy-Six,"  ch.  xxviii. 

The  Expedition  of  George  Rogers  Clark  :  See  Roosevelt  and 
Lodge's  "Hero  Tales,"  pp.  31-41;  McMurry's  "Pioneers  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley,"  ch.  viii. 


THE  WAR   FOR   AMERICAN   INDEPENDENCE        163 

2.  Tell  the  story  of  the  drafting  and  signing  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence. 

See  Elson's  ''Side  Lights  on  American  History,"  vol.  i,  ch.  i; 
Hart's  "Source  Book,"  pp.  147-149. 

3.  Find  some  of  the  events  in  the  early  life  of  Washington 
that  fitted   him  for  his  great  task  as  leader  of  the  army  in  the 
Revolution. 

See  Southworth's  "  Builders  of  Our  Country,"  Book  II,  pp.  24- 
47;  Parkman's  "Struggle  for  a  Continent,"  pp.  335~337>  343- 
350;  Wilson's  "George  Washington,"  chs.  ii,  iii. 

4.  Each  member  of  the  class  may  look  up  the  story  of  some 
other  hero  of  the  Revolutionary  War  not  treated  in  detail  in  this 
chapter   and    report    on   it   to   the  class:    as    Lafayette,   Ethan 
Allen,  Nathan  Hale,  Philip  Schuyler,  Nathanael  Greene,  Daniel 
Morgan,  John  Paul  Jones,  John  Barry. 

See  Crow's  "Lafayette,"  looker's  "John  Paul  Jones,"  Root's 
"Nathan  Hale,"  etc. 


CHAPTER   IX 
THE   CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

While  the  patriots  were  busy  with  the  problems  of  war, 
they  also  sought  to  establish  lasting  governments  for  the 
states  and  the  new  nation.  In  fact,  some  time  before  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  the  Continental  Congress  ad 
vised  the  several  colonies  to  set  up  governments  of  their  own. 
On  the  very  day  that  Congress  selected  the  committee  to 
draft  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  it  also  chose  another 
committee  to  draw  up  a  plan  for  the  permanent  union  of 
all  the  states. 

This  was  a  difficult  task.  Being  engaged  in  a  terrible  strug 
gle  to  throw  off  British  rule,  the  colonists  were  in  no  mood 
to  establish  another  "  strong  government  "  which  might 
follow  the  example  of  Parliament  and  interfere  too  much 
with  their  local  affairs.  During  the  entire  Revolutionary 
War,  there  was  no  vigorous  national  government  binding 
together  all  the  states.  Had  there  been  such  a  government, 
armies  and  supplies  could  have  been  raised  with  ease  and 
the  war  brought  to  a  quicker  end.  The  states  were  jealous 
of  local  freedom  and  jealous  of  one  another,  and  the  Conti 
nental  Congress  was  given  little  power  except  over  foreign 
affairs. 

I.   THE  ARTICLES  OF  CONFEDERATION  AND  THE  FIRST 
STATE   CONSTITUTIONS 

The  Articles  of  Confederation,  1781. --This  fear  of  a 
strong  central  government  made  the  members  of  Congress 
hesitate  a  long  time  before  adopting  the  plan  of  union 

164 


THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES      165 

which  was  drawn  up  by  the  committee  under  the  title  of  the 
"Articles  of  Confederation."  Not  until  late  in  1777  was 
the  scheme  agreed  to  and  sent  to  the  states  for  their  ap 
proval,  or  ratification.  The  states  debated  the  matter  a 
long  time  before  they  would  give  their  consent  to  the 
Articles,  but  finally  by  1781  all  of  them  had  agreed  to  the 
plan  and  it  was  put  into  effect. 

Weakness  of  the  Articles. --This  was  thought  to  be  a 
great  victory,  but  in  a  little  while  dissatisfaction  arose  with 
the  Articles  of  Confederation.  The  objections  were,  in  the 
main,  as  follows  : 

1.  There  was    no  president  with   power  to  enforce  the 
laws  of  the  Congress  throughout  the  United  States. 

2.  The  Congress  represented  states ;  it  did  not  directly 
represent  the  people.     Although  each  state  could  send  from 
two  to  seven  delegates  to  the  Congress  it  had  only  one  vote 
there ;  that  is,  the  little  state  of  Delaware  had  the  same 
power  as  the  big  state  of  Virginia. 

3.  The  Congress  had  no  power  to  raise  money  and  soldiers 
directly ;    it  could  only  call  upon  the  states  to  furnish  their 
respective  shares,  or  "  quotas  "  as  they  were  called.     The 
states  under  this  plan  often  refused  to  meet   the  demands 
of  Congress.     Consequently  the  national  government  could 
not  secure  enough  men  for  the  army  or  raise  money  to  pay 
the  interest   on   the   debt  incurred   in   the  war.     Congress 
could  not  conscript  the  individual  citizens  of.  any  state  or 
tax  them  directly. 

4.  The  Congress  had  no  power  to  regulate  commerce  be 
tween  the  states  and  with  foreign  countries,  so  that  business, 
manufacturing,  and   trade  were  at  the  mercy  of  the   state 
governments  and  also  of  foreign  countries.     One  state  could 
tax  goods  coming  in  from  another  state.     When  a'  foreign 
country  made  an  unjust  law  against  American  trade,  Con 
gress  was  powerless  to  reply  —  except  in  words. 


1 66        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

5.  There  were  few  prohibitions  imposed  by  the  Articles 
on  the  states  and  each  state  legislature  was  a  law  unto  itself. 

New  Constitutions  in  the  Several  States.  —  While  the 
patriots  were  planning  a  union  of  the  states,  they  also  pro 
ceeded  to  draft  constitutions  for  their  respective  state 
governments.  In  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  this  was 
not  a  difficult  problem,  because  all  they  had  to  do  was  to 
strike  the  king's  name  out  of  their  charters  and  go  on  as 
before,  electing  members  of  the  legislature,  governors,  and 
other  officers.  In  the  colonies  where  the  governor  had  been 
the  proprietor,  namely  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Dela 
ware,  or  where  he  had  been  appointed  by  the  king,  as  in  New 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and 
all  the  colonies  south  of  Maryland,  it  was  necessary  to 
make  complete  plans  for  government.  So  in  these  states 
the  revolutionists  drew  up  written  constitutions  setting  forth 
the  scheme  of  government  which  they  thought  desirable. 

Provisions  of  the  First  State  Constitutions.  -  -  The  most 
interesting  features  of  these  new  governments,  framed  in 
the  several  states  in  the  year  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde 
pendence  or  soon  afterward,  were  as  follows  : 

1.  Being  afraid  of  royal  and  proprietary  governors,  the 
constitution  makers  in  nearly  every  state  decided  to  have 
the  governor  subject  to  the  orders  of  the  legislature.     Only 
in  New  York  and  Massachusetts  was  the  governor  made 
elective  by  popular  vote.     Generally  he  was  chosen  by  the 
legislature  and  not  given  many  powers.     In  Massachusetts 
alone  did  the  governor  have  the  sole  power  to  veto  laws 
made  by  the  legislature. 

2.  In  all  the  states,  except   Pennsylvania   and   Georgia, 
the  legislature  was  composed  of  two  houses  :   a  senate,  which 
took  the  place  of  the  old  colonial  council ;   and  an  assembly, 
or  lower  house,  modeled  after  the  colonial  assembly. 

3.  Often  these  first  constitutions  provided  that  only  men 


THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES      167 

who  were  worth  a  stated  amount  of  money  or  held  cer 
tain  religious  opinions  could  be  elected  to  office.  For  ex 
ample,  the  governors  of  North  Carolina  and  Massachusetts 
had  to  be  worth  £1000,  the  governor  of  Maryland,  £5000, 
and  the  governor  of  South  Carolina,  £10,000. 

4.  In  nearly  all  states  the  right  to  vote  was  restricted  to 
men  who  owned  property  of  a  stated  value  or  paid  taxes. 
Many  men  were  dissatisfied  with  a  plan  which  deprived 
them  of  the  vote,  and  within  a  few  years  there  was  a  wide 
spread  agitation  for  white  manhood  suffrage. 

Not  a  few  leading  women  were  likewise  dissatisfied.  In 
March,  1776,  Mrs.  Abigail  Adams,  wife  of  John  Adams, 
wrote  to  her  husband  in  the  Continental  Congress,  asking 
him  to  use  his  influence  in  favor  of  equal  rights  for  women. 
Two  years  later,  1778,  Mrs.  Corbin,  sister  of  Richard 
Henry  Lee,  of  Virginia,  presented  her  own  petition  for  the 
right  to  vote.  Only  one  state,  however,  granted  women 
this  right,  namely,  New  Jersey,  and  this  was  taken  away  a 
few  years  later  by  the  legislature. 

II.   GOVERNMENT  UNDER  THE  CONFEDERATION;  THE  CON 
STITUTIONAL  CONVENTION 

Growing  Discontent  with  the  Government.  —  Although  a 
great  many  people,  probably  a  majority,  were  fairly  well 
satisfied  with  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  several  groups, 
particularly  in  the  towns  along  the  seaboard,  were  thoroughly 
discontented. 

1.  All   men   who   wanted    to    see    the   national   govern 
ment   strong    at    home   and    respected    by   other   countries 
demanded  reform. 

2.  Those  to  whom   the   government    owed    money  were 
dissatisfied,  because   they  did   not   receive  any  interest  on 
their  bonds  and  saw  their  chances  of  getting  the  principal 
growing  slighter  every  day. 


1 68        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

3.  The  manufacturers  were  aggrieved,  because  there  was 
no  tariff  to  protect  their  small  industries  against  English 
competition,  which  became  very  keen  after  the  Revolution. 

4.  Men   engaged  in  trade    and    commerce   were   discon 
tented,  because  Great  Britain  had  made  laws  against  them, 
and  the  government  of  the  United  States  could  not  strike 
any   blows   in   return   against   British   trade  to  bring  that 
country  to  terms. 

5.  Business  men  were  distressed,  because  the  legislatures 
of  the  states  made  so  much  paper  money  that  the  debtors 
could  pay  their  debts  in  cheap  paper.     In  fact,  in  Massa 
chusetts,  a  real    civil   war    broke  out    because    the    money 
lenders  foreclosed  so  many  mortgages  and  took  hundreds  of 
farms  away  from  debtors.     Some  farmers,  headed  by  Daniel 
Shays,   started    a    rebellion    which    almost   overturned    the 
government  of  the  state  and  was  put  down  only  by  very 
strong  measures.     Truly  the  early  days  of  our  own  republic, 
as  of  all  other  republics,  were  full  of  troubles. 

Demand  for  a  Stronger  Government. --The  government 
of  the  United  States  under  the  Articles  of  Confederation 
was  in  danger  of  falling  to  pieces.  A  few  persons  began  to 
talk  seriously  of  choosing  a  king  strong  enough  to  make 
the  government  feared  and  respected  at  home  and  abroad. 
Others,  including  Washington,  Alexander  Hamilton,  and 
James  Madison,  urged  the  formation  of  a  new  government. 
Washington  in  a  private  letter  said  that  disaster  awaited 
if  they  continued  to  rely  upon  "  a  half-starving,  limping 
government,  tottering  at  every  step";  but  he  indignantly 
rejected  a  suggestion  that  he  become  king  himself. 

The  Ordinance  of  1787.  —  Almost  the  only  great  piece  of 
work  done  by  the  government  of  the  United  States  under 
the  Articles  of  Confederation  was  to  prepare  the  western 
country  beyond  the  Alleghenies  for  settlement.  These 
regions,  which  had  been  claimed  by  states  along  the  sea- 


THE   CONSTITUTION  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES      169 

board,  were  given  to  the  general  government  on  condition 
that  they  should  be  disposed  of  for  the  benefit  of  all  and 
formed  later  into  separate  states. 

In  1784  Thomas  Jefferson  proposed  in  Congress  a  measure 
for  the  government  of  the  western  territory,  and  in  1787  Con 
gress  adopted  the  famous  "  Northwest  Ordinance  "  or  plan 


s?  S  irfPTl!  lii 


3 


Washington  was  indignant  at  the  receipt  of  the  letter  inviting  him  to  become  king. 

of  government  to  be  put  into  effect  in  that  district.  This 
celebrated  document  provided  that  (i)  in  due  time  states 
should  be  created  in  the  Northwest  Territory,  (2)  slavery 
should  be  forever  prohibited  there,  and  (3)  all  settlers 
there  should  enjoy  religious  freedom.  Another  important 
law,  enacted  in  1785,  provided  that  one  section  (or  640 
acres  of  land)  in  each  township  of  thirty-six  sections  should 
be  set  apart  for  the  maintenance  of  schools  in  the  township. 


170        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

The  Constitutional  Convention  (1787). — The  year  before 
the  adoption  of  the  Northwest  Ordinance,  there  was  held 
at  Annapolis  a  conference  of  delegates  from  five  states  to 
discuss  matters  of  trade  and  commerce  and  reform  in  the 
national  government.  There  were  so  few  delegates  present 
tha't  it  was  decided  not  to  undertake  any  radical  changes. 
The  Annapolis  convention,  therefore,  merely  recommended 
that  Congress  call  a  second  convention  for  the  sole  and 
express  purpose  of  revising  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

Congress  complied  with  this  request  and  in  February, 
1787,  invited  the  states  to  send  representatives  to  Phila 
delphia.  The  legislatures  of  all  the  states  except  Rhode 
Island  responded  by  choosing  delegates.  When  the  con 
vention  met  it  was  found  to  contain  many  of  the  ablest 
men  of  the  nation  :  Hamilton  of  New  York ;  Washington, 
Madison,  and  Randolph  of  Virginia ;  George  Read  of  Dela 
ware;  Rufus  King  and  Elbridge  Gerry  of  Massachusetts; 
Roger  Sherman,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
from  Connecticut;  Robert  Morris,  Benjamin  Franklin, 
and  James  Wilson  of  Pennsylvania ;  General  Charles  Coates- 
worth  Pinckney  of  South  Carolina;  and  General  Davie  of 
North  Carolina.  Jefferson  was  not  a  member ;  he  was  away 
at  Paris  as  the  minister  of  the  United  States.  The  Constitu 
tional  Convention  sat  behind  closed  doors  from  May  to  Sep 
tember,  1787,  and  after  many  stormy  debates,  which  more 
than  once  threatened  to  end  in  complete  disagreement,  a 
new  plan  of  government  —  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  —  was  adopted. 

III.   THE  CONSTITUTION  AND  ITS  ADOPTION 

The  Compromises  of  the  Constitution.  —  The  chief  disputes 
in  the  convention  were  between  the  large  and  the  small 
states,  between  the  commercial  states  of  the  North  and 
the  agricultural  and  slave  states  of  the  South,  and  between 


THE   CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES      171 

those  who  wished  to  give  large  power  to  the  masses  of  the 
people  and  those  who  wished  to  limit  this  power. 

1.  The    Compromise    between    the   Large    and    the    Small 
States.  --The    small    states,    Connecticut,    Delaware,    and 
New  Jersey,  were  unwilling  to  surrender  their  equal  vote  in 
the  Congress,   and   the  large  states,  Virginia    and    Massa 
chusetts,  were  determined   not  to  give  an    equal  power  to 
the   little   states.     So  a  deadlock   arose   and  there  seemed 
no  way  out  until  it  was  finally  suggested  that   the  states 
should  all  be  equal  in  one  house  of  Congress —  the  Senate 
—  and  that  all  states  should   be  represented   according  to 
population  in  the  lower  house,  the  House  of  Representatives. 

2.  Representation  of  Slaves.  —  In  connection  with  this  sub 
ject  a  contest  arose  as  to  whether  slaves  should  be  regarded 
as    "  people "    in    apportioning    taxes    and    representatives 
among  the  states  according  to  population.     A  compromise 
according  to  an  old  plan  was  adopted,  whereby  three  fifths 
of  the  slaves  should  be  counted  for  this  purpose. 

3.  Commerce  and  the  Slave   Trade. — The  third  big  con 
troversy  was  over  commerce.     The  North  wanted  to  give 
Congress    the    power   to    regulate   trade.     The   South  was 
afraid  that  laws  might  be  made  for  the  benefit  of  the  northern 
shipowners  and   manufacturers,  to  the  injury  of  southern 
farmers  and  planters,  and  that  the  slave  trade  might  be 
abolished.     After  much  argument  it  was  agreed  that  Con 
gress  should  have  the  power  to  regulate  foreign  as  well  as 
interstate  commerce,  but  that  the  slave  trade  should  not  be 
abolished   before   1808.     It    was    further    agreed    that    the 
President    might    negotiate    treaties,    including,  of  course, 
commercial  agreements  with  foreign  countries,  but  that  a 
two-thirds  vote  in  the  Senate  should  be  necessary  to  rati 
fication. 

4.  The    Problem    of    Electing    Congress    and    the    Federal 
Officers.  —  There    was    also    no    little    discussion    in    the 


172         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

convention  as  to  what  share  the  voters  should  have 
directly  in  the  government.  There  were  some  members  who 
thought  that  the  mass  of  men  should  have  as  little  to  do 
with  the  government  as  possible,  and  nearly  all  were  agreed 
that  too  many  popular  elections  were  dangerous  things. 
Out  of  the  debate  over  this  matter  the  members  of  the  con 
vention  came  to  this  agreement : 

(1)  that  the  only  branch  of  the  government  to  be  elected 
directly  by  the  voters  should  be  the  House  of  Representa 
tives —  the    qualifications    for   voters   to    be   the   same    as 
those  fixed  by  the  states  for  voters  for  the  lower  houses  of 
their  legislatures ; 

(2)  that  the  Senators  should  be  elected,  not  by  the  voters 
directly,  but  by  the  legislatures  of  the  respective  states ; 

(3)  that  the  President  should  be  chosen  by  "electors" 
who  were,  in  turn,  to  be  chosen  in  such  manner  as  the  legis 
latures  of  the  states  might  direct ; 

(4)  that  the  Supreme  Court,  which  has  the  power  to  de 
clare  null  and  void  acts  of  Congress  that  are  contrary  to 
the  Constitution,  should  be  chosen  by  the  President  and 
Senate  —  the  two  branches  of  the  government  not  elected 
immediately  by  popular  vote. 

The  Constitution  Contrasted  with  the  Articles  of  Con 
federation. —  The  great  changes  which  the  Constitution 
made  in  the  plan  of  government  set  forth  in  the  Articles  of 
Confederation  were  as  follows  : 

1.  The  Articles   provided   for  no   executive   at   all,   but 
left  the  enforcement  of  the  laws  to  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States  and  to  the  good  will  of  the  several  states. 
The  Constitution  declared  that  there  should  be  a  President 
who  should   supervise  the   execution  of  the    federal    laws 
throughout  the  union,  and  see  that  they  were  obeyed. 

2.  The    Articles    provided    for    a    Congress    composed 
of  one  house  in  which  each  state  had  one  vote   and   no 


THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES      173 

more.     The  Constitution  arranged  for  two  houses  as  above 
described. 

3.  Under  the  Articles  there  was  no  federal  judicial  sys 
tem  to  decide  disputes  between  citizens  and  between  states 
arising  under  the  Constitution  and  the  federal  laws.     The 
Constitution  provided  that  there  should   be  one  supreme 
court  and  such  additional  federal  courts  as  Congress  might 
deem  necessary. 

4.  The  Articles  could  be  amended  only  with  the  consent 
of  all   the  states,  whereas   the   Constitution   provided    for 
amendment    by    a    two-thirds    vote    of  Congress    or    by  a 
national  convention,  subject  to  the  approval  of  three  fourths 
of  the  states. 

The  Four  Important  Powers  of  Congress.  —  While  setting 
up  a  government  composed  of  a  Congress  of  two  houses 
to  make  laws,  a  single  President  to  carry  them  into  effect, 
and  a  judiciary  to  interpret  them,  the  Constitution  gave 
to  the  Congress  the  right  to  make  national  laws  on  certain 
important  matters  (see  Appendix,  pp.  654-655).  Among 
the  new  powers  conferred  on  Congress,  four  are  of  special 
importance,  namely : 

(1)  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  without  asking  the  help  of 
state  governments  ; 

(2)  to  rais^e  and  support  armies  and  naval  forces  directly 
without  calling  on  the  states  for  permission ; 

(3)  to  regulate  trade  and  commerce  with   foreign   coun 
tries  and  between  the  states ; 

(4)  to  do  all  things  necessary  and  proper  to  carry  into 
effect  the  powers  conferred  by  the  Constitution. 

Thus  the  federal  government  was  given  the  very  powers 
necessary  to  make  it  strong  at  home  and  abroad.  It  could 
raise  money  to  pay  its  debts,  give  protection  to  American 
manufacturing  and  commerce,  defend  the  country  against 
foreign  foes,  and  suppress  disorders  at  home,  such  as  had 


174        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

occurred  in  Massachusetts.  In  addition  to  conferring  these 
large  powers  on  the  federal  government,  the  new  Constitution 
forbade  the  states  to  make  paper  money  and  to  do  several 
other  things  which  had  been  disturbing  to  business  (see 
Appendix,  pp.  651-664). 

The  Struggle  over  the  Adoption  of  the  Constitution.  — 
When  at  length,  in  September,  1787,  the  Philadelphia  con 
vention  finished  its  work  and  published  to  the  country  the 
new  scheme  of  government,  the  greater  task  of  securing  its 
adoption  yet  remained.  The  convention  had  proposed  that 
the  Constitution  should  be  submitted  for  approval  or  dis 
approval  to  a  convention  in  each  state,  elected  by  the 
voters  thereof,  and  that  when  nine  states  had  ratified  it, 
the  new  federal  government  should  be  established. 

As  soon  as  the  call  for  the  elections  was  issued,  there  en 
sued  a  bitter  political  campaign.  The  farmers  and  the 
debtors  seem  to  have  been  chief  among  the  opponents-  of 
ratification.  They  declared  that  the  states  were  in  danger 
of  losing  their  liberties  and  that  the  federal  government 
would  become  tyrannical.  The  supporters  of  the  Constitu 
tion  came  mainly  from  the  towns  which  were  the  centers  of 
trade,  commerce,  and  finance.  They  argued  that  the  re 
public  was  in  mortal  danger  of  ruin  owing  to  the  weakness 
of  the  government.  Hamilton,  Madison,  and  Jay  wrote  a 
series  of  remarkable  articles  for  the  newspapers  in  defense 
of  the  Constitution.  These  were  afterward  reprinted  as 
:'The  Federalist"  -destined  to  become  celebrated  as  one  of 
the  greatest  treatises  on  government  ever  written  in  any 
language.  Washington  wrote  to  his  friends  all  over  the 
country  begging  them  to  help  secure  the  adoption  of  tHe 
Constitution. 

The  Elections.  —  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Georgia 
quickly  ratified  the  Constitution  with  little  or  no  opposi 
tion  ;  but  in  all  the  other  states  there  were  sharp  political 


THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES      175 

contests.  In  three  leading  states,  New  York,  Massachusetts, 
and  Virginia,  the  battle  was  especially  hot.  In  the  first  of 
these,  the  opponents  of  the  Constitution  won  a  large  ma 
jority  of  the  delegates  to  the  state  convention,  and  in  the 


i&feSM;l»l ! 


Washington  took  the  oath  of  office  on  the  balcony  of  Federal  Hall  near  Trinity  Church 

in  New  York  City. 


other  two  the  decision  was  so  close  that  the  outcome  was 
uncertain.  New  York  agreed  only  on  the  understanding 
that  a  new  convention  be  called  to  amend  the  Constitution. 
Virginia,  Massachusetts,  and  other  states  demanded  impor 
tant  amendments.  By  dint  of  the  hardest  labor,  enough 


176        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

states  had  been  won  by  the  summer  of  1788  to  put  the  new 
government  into  force.  Rhode  Island  and  North  Carolina 
at  first  rejected  the  Constitution  altogether,  and  it  was  not 
until  they  saw  they  would  be  in  a  dangerous  position  out 
side  of  the  Union  that  they  decided  to  come  into  the  fold. 

Great  as  was  the  excitement  over  the  elections,  only 
about  one  fourth  of  the  white  men  took  part  in  them, 
either  because  they  were  excluded  by  property  qualifica 
tions  on  the  franchise  (see  page  167),  or  because  they  were 
indifferent. 

Washington  the  First  President  (1789).  —  When  the 
news  of  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  by  the  required 
number  of  states  was  received  in  New  York,  Boston,  and 
Philadelphia,  bells  were  rung,  cannon  fired,  and  grand  pro 
cessions  were  held  in  the  streets.  It  was  agreed  everywhere 
that  Washington  -  "  the  first,  the  last,  and  the  best." 
should  be  President  under  the  Constitution;  so  he  was 
elected  without  a  dissenting  vote.  In  the  spring  of  1789, 
he  took  the  oath  of  office  in  New  York  City,  and  the  new 
government,  which  had  been  wrung  from  a  reluctant  na 
tion,  set  out  on  its  great  experiment. 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.    How  was  the  government  of  the  United  States  carried 
on  during  the  Revolution  ?     What  important  powers  did  the  cen 
tral  government  lack   at  this   time  ?      What   were  the  principal 
weaknesses  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation  ?     2.    In  what  ways 
did  the  new  state  constitutions  safeguard  the  rights  of  the  people 
as  a  whole  against  the  possibility  of  a  tyrannical   government  ? 
In  what  ways  were  the  rights  to  vote  and  to  hold  office  restricted 
by  the  state  constitutions  ?     Why  was  this  policy  followed  ? 

II.  i.    What  were  the  important  provisions  of  the  Ordinance 
of  1787?     What  states  were  later  carved  out  of  the  Northwest 
Territory  ?     2.   Why  was  the  Constitutional  Convention  called  ? 


OUTLINE  FOR    REVIEW  177 

When  and  where  did  it  assemble  ?     How  was  it  made  up  ?     Who 
were  some  of  the  prominent  leaders  in  the  convention  ? 

III.  i.  What  is  meant  by  a  compromise?  2.  What  were 
the  most  important  disputes  with  regard  to  the  proposed  consti 
tution  ?  How  were  these  disputes  settled  ?  (The  preamble  of 
the  Constitution  should  be  memorized.  Especial  study  should 
be  made  of  the  powers  of  the  Congress  [Article  i,  Section  8],  and 
the  limitations  of  the  powers  of  the  Congress  [Article  i,  Section  9].) 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  The  period  between  1783  and  1789  is  sometimes  called  the 
"Critical   Period"  of  American  history.     Why? 

2.  Find  out  what  part  each  of  the  following  statesmen  played 
in  the  constitutional  convention  :   Washington,  Hamilton,  Madi 
son.      See  Elson's  "  Side  Lights  on  American   History,"  vol.   i, 
ch.  ii;   Sparks' s  "  The  Men  Who  Made  the  Nation,"  pp.  151-178; 
Wilson's  "  George  Washington,"  pp.  257-262. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  the  provisions  of  the  Constitution  that  were 
made  necessary  by  the  existence  of  slavery. 


OUTLINE  FOR  REVIEW  OF  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  INDEPENDENCE 
AND  THE  FOUNDING  OF  THE  NEW  NATION  (CHAPTERS  VI,  VII, 
VIII,  IX) 

I.    The  condition  of  the  colonies  on  the  eve  of  the  Revolution. 

A.  Elements  of  strength  in  the  colonies. 

1.  The  development  of  the  spirit  of  independence  and 

self-reliance. 

2.  The  growth  of  the  population. 

3.  The  development  of  farming. 

4.  The  beginnings  of  manufacturing. 

a.  Manufacturing  in  the  home. 

b.  The  iron  industry. 

c.  Shipbuilding. 

5.  The  development  of  trade  and  commerce. 

6.  The  principal  cities. 

B.  Differences  between  the  North  and  the  South. 

i.    Differences  in  surface  and  climate  and  their  relation 
to  differences  in  social  life  and  customs. 


178        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

2.  Local  self-government  in  New  England  :   the  town  as 

the  unit  of  government. 

3 .  The  larger  units  of  government  in  the  middle  colonies. 

4.  The  county  as  the  unit  in  the  South. 

C.  Likenesses  between  the  North  and  the  South. 

1.  Few  differences  in  language,  religion,  and  laws. 

2.  Representative  government  common  to  both  sections. 

D.  Education  in  the  colonies. 

II.    Causes  of  the  American  Revolution. 

A.  The  attempt  of  England  to  control  American  trade. 

1.  Objectionable  laws   enforced    by   England    after  the 

Seven  Years'  War. 

2.  Other  objectionable  policies  of  England. 

a.  The  decree  limiting  westward  expansion. 

b.  The  Stamp  Tax. 

B.  The   protest  of   the   colonies    against   taxation   without 

representation. 

1.  Patrick  Henry's  speech. 

2.  The  Stamp  Act  Congress. 

3.  The  Stamp  Act  repealed. 

C.  More   vigorous    protests    following   the   passage   of  the 

Townshend  Acts. 

1.  The  Boston  Massacre.      17? 0 

2.  The  Boston  Tea  Party. 

3.  The  First  Continental  Congress. 

D.  English  friends  of  America  :   Pitt  and  Burke. 

III.   The  War  for  Independence. 

A.  The  beginning  of  the  struggle. 

1.  Lexington  and  Concord. 

2.  The  Second  Continental  Congress. 

B.  The  northern  campaigns. 

1.  The  siege  of  Boston  and  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill. 

2.  Washington  assumes  command  of  the  army. 

3.  Crown  Point  and  Ticonderoga. 


OUTLINE    FOR  REVIEW  179 

4.  The  evacuation  of  Boston  by  the  British. 

5.  The  Quebec  expedition. 

C.  The  Declaration  of  Independence. 

D.  The  middle  states  campaigns. 

1.  Occupation  of  New  York  City  by  the  British  forces. 

2.  Washington's  retreat  through  New  Jersey. 

3.  The  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton. 

4.  Occupation  of  Philadelphia  by  the  British  forces. 

5.  The  winter  at  Valley  Forge. 

6.  The  Burgoyne  expedition  :   Bennington  and  Saratoga. 

E.  The  French  alliance. 

F.  The  southern  campaigns. 

1.  Capture  of  Savannah  and  Charleston. 

2.  Cornwallis's  campaign  in  the  South. 

a.  Camden. 

b.  King's  Mountain  and  Cowpens. 

c.  Guilford. 

3 .  The  siege  of  Yorktown  and  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis. 

G.  The  war  at  sea :   John  Paul  Jones  and  John  Barry. 

H.   The  war  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  :  George  Rogers  Clark's 
expedition  and  the  capture  of  Vincennes. 

/.     The  Treaty  of  Paris. 

/.     Some  of  the  causes  of  American  success  in  the  war. 

1.  Washington's  character,  skill,  and  leadership. 

2.  Franklin's  diplomacy. 

3.  The  work  of  Robert  Morris  in  financing  the  war. 

4.  The  work  of  the  women. 

IV.  The  "Critical  Period"  between   1781   and   1789:    the  Con 
stitution. 

A.    Government  under  the  Continental  Congress  during  the 
Revolution. 

E.    The    Articles    of    Confederation    proposed    (1777)    and 
adopted  (1781). 

C.    New    constitutions    of   the    states    and    their    principal 
provisions. 


i8o        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


D.  Government  under  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

1.  Discontent    throughout    the    country:     Shays's    Re 

bellion. 

2.  The  Ordinance  of  1787  the  most  important  legislation 

under  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

E.  The  Constitutional  Convention. 

F.  The  Constitution. 

1.  Its  compromises. 

a.  Between  large  and  small  states. 

b.  Regarding  the  counting  of  slaves  in  apportioning 

representatives. 

c.  Regarding  commerce  and  the  slave  trade. 

d.  Regarding  the  direct  share  of  the  voters  in  the 

government. 

2.  Contrasts  between  the  Constitution  and  The  Articles 

of  Confederation. 

3.  The  four  important  powers  of  Congress. 

G.  The  adoption  of  the  Constitution. 
H.   Washington  the  first  President. 


Important  names  : 

STATESMEN  AND  LEADERS  IN  CIVIL  LIFE 
American 

Patrick  Henry 
Samuel  Adams 
James  Otis 
Benjamin  Franklin 
Robert  Morris 
Thomas  Jefferson 
James  Madison 
Alexander  Hamilton 


MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  LEADERS 


English 

American 

English 

William 
Pitt 

Washington 
Greene 

Howe 
Cornwallis 

Edmund 

Gates 

Burke 

Schuyler 
Jones 

French 

Lafayette 
Rochambeau 

Important  dates :  1765;  1775;  July  4,  1776;  1777;  1778;  1781; 
1783;  1787;  1789. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  FIRST  GREAT  POLITICAL  CONTEST 

I.    STARTING  THE  NEW  GOVERNMENT 

When  the  federal  government  began  operations  in  1789, 
the  treasury  was  empty,  debts  were  piling  up,  and  the  army 
was  falling  to  pieces.  Trying  problems  lay  before  President 
Washington,  his  advisers,  and  Congress.  Revenues  had  to 
be  raised,  departments  of  government  organized,  a  Supreme 
Court  and  other  federal  courts  created,  a  national  monetary 
system  established,  and  relations  with  foreign  countries  ad 
justed.  Moreover,  it  was  necessary  to  allay  the  fears  of 
those  who  had  opposed  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  on 
the  ground  that  it  was  "  dangerous  to  the  liberties  of  states 
and  citizens." 

The  First  Amendments  to  the  Constitution.  —  Among  the 
first  objections  advanced  by  the  opponents  of  the  Consti 
tution  was  that  there  were  no  express  limitations  in  favor 
of  personal  freedom  and  the  rights  of  states.  In  order  to 
meet  this  objection,  the  first  Congress  passed  a  set  of  amend 
ments  to  the  Constitution,  ten  of  which  were  soon  ratified 
by  the  states  and  became  a  part  of  the  law  of  the  land  (see 
page  660).  These  new  clauses  provided  (i)  that  Congress 
could  make  no  laws  interfering  with  freedom  of  religious 
worship,  freedom  of  speech  and  press,  and  the  right  to  as 
semble  and  petition  the  government.  They  also  provided 
(2)  for  indictment  by  grand  jury  and  trial  by  jury  in  all 

181 


1 82        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

cases  of  persons  charged  by  the  federal  officers  with  serious 
crimes.  (3)  The  ninth  and  tenth  amendments  were  de 
signed  to  reassure  those  who  had  fears  for  the  rights  of 

states  and  the  people.  The  eleventh 
amendment,  adopted  in  1798,  was 
also  written  in  the  same  spirit,  be 
cause  it  was  intended  to  prevent 
the  federal  courts  from  hearing  suits 
brought  by  citizens  against  "  sov 
ereign  states." 

Alexander    Hamilton's    Measures.  — 
All     these     declarations     of     rights, 
however,    contributed    little    to    set 
ting    the    national    house    in    order. 
ALEXANDER  HAMILTON        i™  11     i      r          r  •    i 

lhat     called     for     financial     genius, 

and  Washington  found  it  in  Alexander  Hamilton,  the  first 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  Hamilton's  plans  for  the  new 
government  were  embodied  in  famous  reports  to  Congress. 

i.  The  New  Government  Adjusts  the  War  Debts.  —  One 
of  the  first  things  Hamilton  proposed  was  that  the  new 
federal  government  should  call  in  all  the  certificates,  bonds, 
and  other  "  promises  to  pay  "  which  had  been  issued  by  the 
Continental  Congress  during  the  Revolution  in  return  for 
money  and  supplies  necessary  to  carry  on  the  war.  He 
wanted  the  government  to  put  the  entire  national  debt  into 
one  lump  sum  and  issue  new  bonds,  payable  some  time  in 
the  future  and  drawing  interest  until  paid.  This  process 
was  called  "  funding  "  the  debt. 

Hamilton's  second  proposal  was  that  the  federal  govern 
ment  should  "  assume  "  the  debts  which  had  been  incurred 
by  the  several  states  in  carrying  on  the  war;  that  is,  take 
over  those  debts,  add  them  to  the  already  large  national 
debt,  and  "  fund  "  them  also.  Hamilton  declared  that  the 
government  was  honor-bound  to  pay  the  entire  debt  at 


THE   FIRST  GREAT   POLITICAL  CONTEST  183 

its    full   value   and   thus   restore    its    credit    at    home    and 
abroad.1 

These  proposals  were  attacked,  especially  by  southern 
members  of  Congress,  who  urged  that  most  of  the  debt  had 
been  bought  up  by  speculators  at  a  few  cents  on  the  dollar. 
Opponents  of  the  plan  said  that  it  was  unjust  to  the  per 
sons  who  had  originally  lent  money  or  sold  supplies  to 
the  government,  and  unjust  to  the  tax-payers,  to  give  a 
dollar  to  a  speculator  in  return  for  a  certificate  for  which 
he  had  paid  only  ten  or  twenty  cents.  It  was  also  said, 
with  truth,  that  some  members  of  the  Congress  had  them 
selves  held,  or  had  bought  for  speculation,  this  depreciated 
paper,  and  were  profiting  by  the  transaction. 

It  was  urged  against  the  assumption  of  state  debts  that  it 
would  weaken  the  states  and  strengthen  the  national  gov 
ernment  by  making  the  bondholders  look  to  the  latter  for 
the  payment  of  the  interest  and  principal  of  the  debt.  The 
farmers  were  afraid  that  the  holders  of  the  bonds  would  be 
come  a  "  great  money  power "  to  which  they  would  have 
to  pay  tribute  from  the  produce  of  their  land. 

The  Compromise  between  North  and  South.  —  So  strong 
was  the  opposition  to  the  assumption  of  the  state  debts  that 
Congress  was  deadlocked  over  the  matter  for  a  long  time. 
Some  of  the  northern  men  threatened  to  break  up  the 
Union  if  the  southern  Congressmen  would  not  consent  to 
Hamilton's  plan.  Things  became  so  serious  that  at  the 
request  of  Hamilton,  Jefferson,  who  was  Secretary  of  State, 
arranged  a  dinner  at  which  the  leaders  on  both  sides  came 
together  and  reached  a  compromise.  It  was  agreed  that 
enough  southern  members  would  vote  for  assumption  to 


1  It  was  provided  that  most  of  the  continental  currency  or  paper  money  could 
be  "funded"  at  the  rate  of  one  cent  on  the  dollar.  That  is,  if  a  man  had  $100  in 
paper  money,  he  could  get  a  new  $i  government  bond.  Few  took  the  trouble 
to  do  this,  and  so  the  worthless  "continentals"  simply  disappeared. 


1 84        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

carry  it  in  Congress,  and  that  northern  members  would,  in 
return,  vote  for  a  law  locating  the  new  capital  of  the  country 
on  the  banks  of  the  Potomac  River. 

As  a  part  of  the  "  trade  "  it  was  agreed,  in  exchange  for 
Pennsylvania  votes  in  favor  of  assumption,  to  locate  the 
capital  at  Philadelphia  for  ten  years  before  transferring  it 
to  the  new  city  of  Washington  on  the  Potomac.  The 
bargain  was  carried  out  to  the  letter.  The  capital  was 
transferred  from  New  York  to  Philadelphia  in  1790,  and 
then  to  Washington  in  1800.  By  this  trade  the  entire  war 
debt  was  "  funded  "  by  Congress. 

2.  The   United  States  Bank.  —  Hamilton's  next  plan  was 
for  a  great  United  States  bank  empowered  to  issue  money. 
The  business  men  of  the  country,  in  attempting  to  carry  on 
trade  with  all  sections,  were  exasperated  beyond  measure  by 
many  kinds   of  state  notes  and  coins,  which  had   varying 
values  in   different   cities.     They  wanted   a  currency   that 
would  have  uniform  value  in  all  regions  from  Portsmouth, 
New  Hampshire,  to  Savannah,  Georgia. 

The  bank  was  also  bitterly  attacked  in  Congress.  The 
farmers  and  planters  viewed  it  as  another  part  of  the 
scheme  to  build  up  a  "  money  power  "  ;  but,  in  spite  of  their 
opposition,  the  bank  was  founded  in  1791  and  branches  were 
soon  started  in  all  important  cities. 

3.  The  Protective  Tariff.  —  Hamilton's  third  plan  was  for 
a  special  duty  or  "  protective  tariff"  on  manufactured  goods 
coming  into  the  United  States  from  foreign  countries.     He 
argued  that  if  no  duty  were  charged  on  such  articles,  Ameri 
can  factory  owners  who  were  just  getting  a  small  start  in 
business  could  not  compete  with  the  old  and  established  con 
cerns  of  England  because  they  could  not  sell  as  cheaply. 

The  protective  tariff  was  sharply  criticized,  especially  by 
Congressmen  from  the  South.  They  held  that  the  farmers 
would  have  to  pay'  the  tax.  If  there  was  no  tariff,  it  was 


THE   FIRST  GREAT   POLITICAL  CONTEST  185 

said,  they  could  sell  their  wheat,  corn,  cotton,  and  other 
produce  abroad  and  import  cheap  manufactures  in  return. 
If  there  was  a  tariff,  they  would  have  to  add  the  tax  to  the 
European  prices  of  the  articles  which  they  bought.  In  spite 
of  the  criticism,  however,  the  very  first  revenue  law  passed 
by  the  first  Congress  was  drawn  up  partly  for  the  purpose 
of  protecting  American  manufactures  —  at  least  by  moder 
ate  taxes  laid  on  imported  goods. 

Hamilton's  Measures  Violently  Opposed.  — In  the  battle  over 
these  great  measures  it  was  clear,  first,  that  very  many 
men  were  bitterly  opposed  to  them ;  and,  secondly,  that  the 
strongest  opposition  came  from  the  farming  regions,  par 
ticularly  of  the  South.  The  friends  of  the  measures  were 
to  be  found  in  the  larger  cities  like  Boston,  Providence, 
Hartford,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Charleston.  It 
took  very  clever  management  on  the  part  of  Hamilton  to 
secure  enough  favorable  votes  in  Congress  to  enact  these 
laws,  and  even  after  they  were  passed  opponents  kept  up 
their  criticism. 

At  length  Thomas  Jefferson,  who  was  Secretary  of  State 
under  President  Washington,  openly  joined  Hamilton's 
political  enemies.  Jefferson  had  assisted  in  the  compro 
mise  which  resulted  in  the  funding  and  assumption  of  the 
debt,  but  he  had  violently  opposed  the  bank.  For  a  while 
he  continued  to  hold  office  under  Washington,  even  though 
he  was  an  outspoken  critic  of  the  government.  In  1793  he 
resigned  and  retired  to  his  estate  in  Virginia,  where  he  as 
sumed  the  leadership  of  those  who  were  opposed  to  Hamil 
ton's  program. 

The  Whisky  Rebellion.  —  Opposition  to  the  government 
broke  out  in  an  armed  revolt  in  1794,  known  as  the  Whisky 
Rebellion.  In  order  to  meet  the  interest  on  the  great  public 
debt,  and  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  government,  a  tax 
had  been  laid  on  whisky.  This  angered  the  farmers  of  the 


1 86        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

western  districts  of  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and  North  Caro 
lina,  many  of  whom  turned  their  grain  into  whisky.  When 
the  government  placed  a  tax  on  it,  the  farmers  resented  this 
action.  In  Pennsylvania  some  of  them  sacked  and  burned 
the  houses  of  the  tax  collectors,  just  as  the  Revolutionists 
thirty  years  before  had  mobbed  the  British  agents  sent  over 
to  collect  the  stamp  tax.  Washington  and  Hamilton  were 
prompt  in  calling  out  the  troops  and  the  affair  passed  off 
without  much  bloodshed.  Nevertheless,  it  made  many 
farmers  criticize  the  federal  government  more  severely  than 
ever. 

The  Rise  of  the  Two  Great  Political  Parties.  —  Out  of 
these  controversies  there  grew  two  great  political  parties. 
Those  who  supported  Hamilton's  measures  —  which  were 
in  fact  the  measures  of  the  new  federal  government  —  were 
called  "  Federalists."  Those  who  opposed  them  were  called 
"  Anti-Federalists/'  or  "  Republicans/'  The  Federalists 
were  accused  of  being  in  sympathy  with  Great  Britain  —  of 
being  "  monarchists."  On  this  account,  the  Anti-Federalists 
took  the  simpler  title  of  "  Republicans  "  to  indicate  their 
hatred  of  everything  that  savored  of  monarchy. 

1.  Federalist  Policy.  —  Hamilton   was  the   leader  of  the 
Federalists.    He  believed  in  making  the  national  government 
strong,  and  in  using  it  to  protect  commerce  and.  industry 
against    foreign  competition.       He  wanted    to  build  up  in 
America  an  industrial  as  well  as  agricultural  nation. 

2.  Anti-Federalist  Policy.  —  Jefferson  was   the   leader  of 
the  Anti-Federalists.     He  wanted  to  strengthen  state  rather 
than  federal  government.    He  thought  that  a  free  government 
could  long  endure  only  where  the  mass  of  the  people  were 
independent  farmers  owning  their  own  land,  and  he  deliber 
ately  made  himself  the  spokesman  of  what  he  called  "  the 
landed    interest."     He  opposed  turning  the  United  States 
into  a  manufacturing  nation,  because  he  believed  that  the 


THE   FIRST  GREAT   POLITICAL  CONTEST  187 

"  mobs  of  the  great  cities  add  just  so  much  to  the  support 
of  pure  government  as  sores  do  to  the  strength  of  the 
human  body."  The  contest  between  Hamilton  and  Jeffer 
son  was  therefore  a  contest  over  two  ideals  of  government. 

II.     RELATIONS  WITH  EUROPE 

The  French  Revolution  (1789).  —  While  this  division  into 
political  parties  was  taking  place  in  the  United  States,  mo 
mentous  events  were  happening  in  Europe.  A  few  weeks 
after  Washington  was  first  inaugurated,  in  1789,  the  French 
king  had  been  forced  to  call  a  national  parliament.  Three 
years  later  there  occurred  a  popular  uprising  in  France  and 
a  republic  was  established.  The  following  year  the  king  and 
queen,  Louis  XVI  and  Marie  Antoinette,  were  executed. 
The  townspeople  and  peasants  overthrew  the  monarchy, 
nobility,  and  clergy  (see  pp.  10-13).  They  drew  up  con 
stitutions  for  their  own  government,  and  proclaimed  prin 
ciples  of  liberty  which  shook  the  thrones  of  Europe!  Thus 
the  French,  who  had  borrowed  much  from  the  American 
Revolutionists,  joined  in  spirit  the  new  Republic  across  the 
sea.  At  the  same  time  a  war  broke  out  between  England 
and  France,  which  was  destined  to  last,  with  a  slight  inter 
mission,  until  the  final  overthrow  of  Napoleon  in  1815. 

In  America  the  Republicans  approved  the  French  Revo 
lution,  and  applauded  France  in  her  war  against  Great 
Britain.  Moreover,  they  had  not  forgotten  that  in  the  dark 
hours  of  the  American  Revolution  France  had  helped  with 
men  and  money. 

Troubles  with  England.  —  Although  the  Federalists  wanted 
to  keep  out  of  the  European  conflict,  American  commerce 
abroad  involved  the  country  in  grave  difficulties.  England 
claimed  the  right  to  seize  American  produce  bound  for 
French  ports  and  American  ships  engaged  in  carrying 


1 88         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

French  goods.  The  Americans  contended  that  only  military 
supplies  were  liable  to  seizure,  and  that  as  "  free  ships  made 
free  goods  "  American  vessels  should  not  be  captured  merely 
because  they  happened  to  have  French  goods  on  board.  In 
spite  of  such  protests,  the  British  continued  to  hold  up 
American  merchant  vessels  ;  and  in  addition  to  seizing  goods 
and  ships,  they  began  to  carry  off  any  British-born  sailors 
found  on  board. 

Neutrality  and  the  Jay  Treaty.  —  Naturally  enough,  this 
conduct  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain  raised  a  hue  and 
cry  in  the  United  States.  The  Republicans,  who  sympa 
thized  with  France,  made  much  of  Genet,  the  French  repre 
sentative  to  the  United  States  government,  and  openly 
denounced  the  British  minister,  although  the  United  States 
was  supposed  to  be  neutral.  The  Republicans  demanded 
war  on  Great  Britain,  or  at  least  some  kind  of  retaliation 
for  the  seizure  of  American  produce,  ships,  and  men. 

Washington  and  Hamilton,  however,  feared  that  a  second 
war  with  Great  Britain  might  be  a  ruinous  affair,  and 
that  it  would  disturb  the  funded  debt,  the  bank,  and  the 
tariff,  which  had  been  secured  by  such  hard  labors.  More 
over,  they  thought  that  those  Americans  who  sympathized 
with  the  French  Revolutionists  were  dangerous  citizens, 
likely  to  overturn  the  newly  established  American  govern 
ment.  Washington  requested  France  to  recall  Genet  for 
his  imprudent  conduct  in  this  country.  He  also  issued  a 
famous  proclamation  declaring  the  absolute  neutrality  of 
the  United  States,  and  sent  the  Chief  Justice,  John  Jay,  to 
Great  Britain  to  make  a  treaty  disposing  of  the  matters  in 
dispute  between  the  two  countries. 

Jay  succeeded  in  negotiating  a  treaty  in  which  he  secured 
very  few  favors  indeed  for  the  United  States.  Great 
Britain  agreed  to  withdraw  her  soldiers  from  American  posts 
in  the  northwest,  where  they  had  been  since  the  close  of 


THE  FIRST  GREAT  POLITICAL  CONTEST 


189 


the  Revolution,  and  to  grant  a  few  additional  concessions ; 
but  she  would  not  stop  seizing  American  goods  and  sailors 
on  the  high  seas.  Washington,  however,  was  able  to  keep 
the  country  out  of  the  war,  though  he  made  many  enemies 
at  the  time  by  his  stand  for  neutrality  and  the  unpopular 
Jay  treaty. 

John  Adams  Elected  President.  —  In  the  midst  of  the 
bitter  party  fight,  the  time  for  the  third  presidential 
election  arrived.  Washington  had 
been  reflected  in  1792  amid  the 
hearty  rejoicing  of  the  country, 
and  many  citizens  urged  him  to 
accept  a  third  term  in  1796.  Al 
though  he  was  not  opposed  to 
another  term  on  principle,  he  was 
growing  weary  of  the  duties  of  office 
and  disliked  the  party  wrangling  /  / 
that  was  going  on  around  him.  Ac 
cordingly  he  refused  to  accept  re 
election. 

The  Federalists,  after  casting  about  for  a  candidate, 
selected  John  Adams,  of  Massachusetts.  The  Republi 
cans,  of  course,  turned  to  Jefferson,  their  acknowledged 
leader.  The  political  campaign  which  followed  was  a  very 
savage  one  indeed ;  the  parties  roundly  abused  each  other. 
Adams  was  elected  by  a  majority  of  only  three  electoral 
votes.  Jefferson,  who  had  received  the  next  highest  num 
ber  of  votes,  had  to  content  himself  with  the  office  of  Vice 
President. 

Before  Washington  laid  down  his  burdens  he  delivered 
his  famous  Farewell  Address,  in  which  he  warned  his  coun 
trymen  to  avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  becoming  embroiled  in 
the  quarrels  of  European  nations,  and  urged  them  to  shun 
the  evils  of  partisanship  at  home. 


JOHN  ADAMS 


I  go        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN    PEOPLE 

Trouble  with  France.  --  By  a  singular  circumstance  Wash 
ington's  successor,  Adams,  was  able  to  make  the  Fed 
eralist  party  very  popular  for  a  few  months.  The  Direc 
tory,  which  was  composed  of  the  chief  executive  officers  of 
the  French  Republic,  was  angry  with  the  United  States 
on  account  of  the  Jay  treaty,  because  it  had  hoped  that 
America  would  join  France  in  her  war  on  Great  Britain. 
The  Directory  accordingly  refused  to  receive  the  Amer 
ican  minister  until  the  United  States  made  "  amends." 
Adams  thereupon  sent  to  France  a  special  mission  of  three 
distinguished  citizens.  As  soon  as  they  arrived,  the  French 
government  demanded  from  them  an  apology  for  past  con 
duct,  a  payment  in  cash,  and  a  tribute  to  France  as 
the  price  of  continued  friendship.  President  Adams  told 
Congress  the  truth  about  these  demands,  not  mentioning 
the  names  of  the  Frenchmen  who  made  them,  but  referring 
to  them  as  Mr.  X,  Mr.  Y,  and  Mr.  Z  (hence  the  term, 
"X  Y  Z  Mission"). 

The  news  of  this  insult  made  even  the  Republicans 
angry  at  France,  and  they  joined  with  the  Federalists  in 
shouting,  "  Millions  for  defense ;  not  a  cent  for  tribute." 

As  France,  like  England,  was  preying  on  American 
commerce*  with  European  countries,  the  United  States  felt 
compelled  to  prepare  for  retaliation.  In  the  fervor  of  the 
moment,  Joseph  Hopkinson,  of  Philadelphia,  wrote  the 
patriotic  song,  "  Hail,  Columbia."  Fighting  on  the  sea 
actually  began,  and  Captain  Thomas  Truxton  in  command 
of  the  American  ship  Constellation  won  the  applause  of  the 
country  by  brilliant  exploits  against  French  ships.  This  in 
formal  "  war  "  went  on  until  1800,  when  it  was  brought 
to  a  close  by  a  treaty  with  Napoleon,  who  had  become 
First  Consul  of  France. 

The  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws.  --If  the  Federalists  had 
been  more  careful,  they  might  have  defeated  the  Republicans 


THE   FIRST  GREAT  POLITICAL  CONTEST          191 

again  in  the  election  of  1800;  but  in  the  excitement  of  their 
victories  over  the  French  they  made  some  fatal  political 
mistakes.  They  passed  in  1798  two  famous  laws  known  as 
the  Alien  and  Sedition  Acts,  (i)  The  Alien  law  gave  the 
President  the  power  to  expel  any  alien  from  the  United 
States  who  was  not  acceptable  to  the  government.  Al 
though  this  law  was  not  enforced,  it  angered  many  of  the 
French  and  Irish  who  had  recently  migrated  to  this  coun 
try.  (2)  The  Sedition  law,  which  was  vigorously  enforced, 
provided  that  anybody  who  sharply  criticized  the  govern 
ment  of  the  United  States  or  any  officer  thereof  might,  on 
conviction,  be  fined  and  imprisoned. 

Before  long,  several  editors  of  Republican  newspapers 
found  themselves  in  prison  or  compelled  to  pay  fines  that 
impoverished  them.  Bystanders  at  political  meetings  who 
abused  the  President  or  Congress  were  seized  and  sent  to  jail. 
At  once  Jefferson  and  his  followers  rose  in  wrath  against  the 
law,  declaring  that  it  was  a  monarchical  attempt  to  sup 
press  freedom  of  the  press  and  of  speech  in  this  country. 

The  Kentucky  and  Virginia  Resolutions.  -  -  Jefferson 
quickly  prepared  a  set  of  resolutions  condemning  the 
Alien  and  Sedition  laws.  These  resolutions  were  adopted 
by  the  Kentucky  legislature  and  soon  became  famous  as 
the  "  Kentucky  Resolutions."  In  addition  to  condemning 
the  laws  in  question  and  declaring  that  they  violated  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States,  the  Kentucky  resolu 
tions  announced  the  doctrine  that  the  Constitution  was 
a  contract  or  agreement  among  the  states  as  partners,  and 
that  any  state  could  decide  when  a  law  of  Congress  violated 
the  terms  of  the  agreement.  Kentucky  even  went  so  far 
as  to  declare  that  any  state  could  compel  its  citizens  to 
disobey  an  unconstitutional  federal  law;  that  is,  "  nullify" 
it.  This  is  the  doctrine  of  "  nullification,"  of  which  we 
shall  hear  again  later.  At  the  same  time,  Jefferson's  friend, 


192        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


James  Madison,  drafted  a  set  of  milder  resolutions,  which 
were  passed  by  the  legislature  of  Virginia. 

The  legislatures  of  several  northern  states  'replied  that 
the  doctrine  of  nullification  was  false  and  that  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States  alone  had  the  final  power 
to  decide  disputes  between  the  federal  government  and 
the  states. 

Jefferson  Elected  President.  —  During  the  excitement 
over  the  Alien  and  Sedition  laws  and  the  troubles  with 

France  and  Great  Britain,  the 
election  of  1800  took  place.  The 
Federalists  held  a  "  caucus  "  of 
their  members  in  Congress  and  re- 
nominated  President  Adams,  while 
the  Republicans  again  put  forward 
Jefferson  for  President  and  Aaron 
Burr  of  New  York  for  Vice  Presi 
dent.  In  the  campaign  which  en 
sued,  many  bitter  and  hateful 
things  were  said  on  both  sides. 
The  Federalists  made  a  hard  fight, 
but  they  were  defeated.  When  the  electoral  vote  was  counted 
it  was  found,  however,  that  Jefferson  and  Burr  each  had 
seventy-three  votes  and  were  tied  for  the  office  of  President.1 
As  a  result  of  this  tie,  the  choice  of  President  was  thrown 
into  the  House  of  Representatives,  where  the  Federalists 
held  the  balance  of  power.  It  looked  for  a  time  as  if  Burr 
would  be  made  President;  but,  largely  by  the  efforts  of 
Hamilton,  the  Federalists  in  the  House  were  induced  to  cast 
their  votes  for  Jefferson. 

1  The  original  Constitution  required  the  presidential  electors  to  vote  for  two 
persons,  without  indicating  which  office  each  was  to  fill,  and  the  person  who 
received  the  highest  number  of  votes  (if  a  majority)  became  President.  The 
candidate  receiving  the  next  highest  number  of  votes  became  Vice  President. 
This  was  changed  by  the  twelfth  amendment.  See  Appendix,  p.  662. 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON 


THE   FIRST  GREAT   POLITICAL  CONTEST  193 

So  the  great  party  of  Washington,  Hamilton,  and  Adams, 
which  had  guided  the  new  government  through  the  trials 
of  its  first  years,  was  driven  from  power  forever. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.    When     did    the    new    Constitution     go     into     effect? 
2.    What  part   of  the  country  did  not  wish  to  have   the  federal 
government  assume  the  debts  incurred  during  the  Revolution  ? 
Why?     How  was  the  controversy  settled?     3.    What  was  Ham 
ilton's  purpose  in  planning  for  a  national  bank  ?     Why  were  his 
plans  opposed?     4.    What   is  meant    by   a   "protective"   tariff? 
Why  were  the  farmers  generally  opposed  to  a  protective  tariff? 
5.    State  the  causes  of  the  "Whisky  Rebellion." 

II.  i.    What    effects  did  the  French  Revolution  have  in  the 
United    States  ?      What    political   party  in  this  country   showed 
especial    sympathy   for    the    revolutionists    in    France  ?      Why  ? 
Why    did    Washington    ask    the    French    government    to    recall 
Genet  ?    '  2.    Describe    the   difficulties    that   American   commerce 
had  to  meet  because  of  the  war  between  England   and   France. 
Why  did  England  claim  the  right  to  search  American  ships    for 
British-born  sailors?     3.    What  led  to  the  troubles  with  France? 
Why  are  these  referred  to  in  the  text  as  an  "informal   war"? 
4.    What  were    the    "alien   and    sedition"    laws  and   why   were 
they  passed  ?    Why  were  they  opposed  ?     5.  State  the  principles 
laid  down  in  the  Kentucky  and  Virginia  resolutions. 

Review:  i.  State  the  important  differences  between  the  Fed 
eralists  and  the  Republicans.  2.  Make  a  list  of  the  most 
important  events  in  the  administrations  of  Washington  and 
Adams. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Prepare  and  be  ready  to  give  to  the  class  an  interesting 
description  of  Washington's  election  and  inauguration. 

See  Elson's  "Side  Lights  on  American  History,"  Vol.  i,  ch.  iii ; 
Sparks's  "The  Men  Who  Made  the  Nation,"  pp.  181-197; 
Hart's  "Source  Book,"  pp.  181-183. 

2.  The  French  Revolution  was  one  of  the  most  important  events 
of  the  world's  history.     Find  out  all  that  you  can  about  it,  espe 
cially  about  its  causes  and  results. 


194         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

See  Tappan's  "England's  Story,"  pp.  313-317;  Guerber's 
"Story  of  Modern  France,"  pp.  53—119. 

3.  The  federal  government  offered  to  redeem  the  paper  money 
that  had   been  issued   by  the  Continental  Congress  during  the 
Revolution,  but  at  only  one  per  cent  of  its  original  value.     Why 
was  the  government  justified  in  refusing  to  redeem  this  money 
at  its  face  value  ? 

Interesting  accounts  of  the  depreciation  of  this  paper  money 
will  be  found  in  Hart's  "Camps  and  Firesides  of  the  Revolution," 
pp.  218-220,  and  Hart's  "Source  Book,"  pp.  157-159. 

4.  Why  is  Alexander  Hamilton  looked  upon  by  historians  as  one 
of  the  greatest  of  American  statesmen  ? 

See  Southworth's  "  Builders  of  Our  Country,"  Book  II,  pp.  97- 
107. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE    EXPANSION  OF  THE  UNITED    STATES 
I.   THE  PARTY  OF  THE  FARMERS  IN  POWER 

When  the  news  that  Jefferson  was  elected  spread  through 
out  the  country,  his  followers  rejoiced  that  the  "  Great 
Revolution, "  so  long  desired,  had  come  at  last.  The 
Federalist  party  —  the  party  led  by  merchants,  traders, 
manufacturers,  and  financiers  of  the  seaboard  —  had  been 
driven  from  power.  The  Republicans,  whose  leader  was 
first  of  all  a  friend  of  agriculture,  were  in  control. 

The  Domestic  Policies  of  Jefferson's  Party.  —  On  March 
4,  1801,  Jefferson  was  inaugurated  President  — the  first  at 
the  new  capital,  Washington.  He  discontinued  the  tradi 
tional  practice  followed  by  Washington  and  Adams  of 
reading  their  addresses  to  the  assembled  Houses,  and 
adopted  the  plan  of  sending  his  messages  to  Congress  in 
writing  —  a  custom  that  was  continued  unbroken  until 
1913,  when  President  Wilson  returned  to  the  old  example 
set  by  Washington. 

The  Republicans  then  started  their  reforms.  They  had 
complained  of  the  great  national  debt,  and  they  began  at  once 
to  pay  it  off  as  fast  as  possible.  They  had  denounced  com 
merce  and  a  great  navy  to  defend  it,  and  accordingly  they 
reduced  the  number  of  warships.  They  had  objected  to 
the  internal  revenue  or  excise  taxes,  and  these  they  speedily 
abolished,  to  the  intense  satisfaction  of  the  farmers.  They 
had  protested  against  the  heavy  expenses  of  the  federal 

195 


196 


THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


government,    and   to  lower  these   they  discharged   a  large 
number  of  men  from  the  army  and  abolished  many  federal 


V 


Trairie  du  Ohien 


THE  EXTENT  OF  TERRITORY  SETTLED  IN  1790 

offices.  Having  thus  swept  away  everything  that  seemed 
"  monarchical  "  and  "  un-American,"  the  Republicans  turned 
their  attention  to  what  they  thought  would  be  the  per 
manent  national  interest  —  agriculture. 


I  HE   EXPANSION  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES          197 

Instead  of  a  "  little  America  "  along  the  seaboard,  look 
ing  to  Europe  for  trade,  for  the  refinements  of  life,  and, 
perhaps,  for  ideas  of  government,  there  was  now  to  be  a 
greater  America,  looking  westward  to  rich  valleys  and  fer 
tile  fields,  where  millions  could  live  and  work  completely 
indifferent  to  the  Old  World,  with  its  kings,  princes,  and 
nobles.  The  Federalist  party  had  looked  with  alarm  on 
the  growth  of  the  West  and  Southwest;  the  Republican 
party  rejoiced  in  opening  the  wilderness  to  pioneers  and 
planters. 

Prospects  of  Future  Development  Chiefly  Agricultural.  - 
Those  who,  like  Jefferson,  feared  the  growth  of  industrial 
cities,  could  now  hope  with  more  assurance  than  ever 
that  the  United  States  would  always  be  primarily  a  nation 
of  farmers.  Only  the  most  imaginative  dared  to  picture 
a  coming  age  when  the  population  would  be  thirty  times 
larger  than  it  was  when  Washington  was  inaugurated. 
Only  the  dreamer  fancied  a  day  when  all  the  vast  stretches 
of  forest,  swamp,  wilderness,  and  valley  would  be  thickly 
settled,  and  when  cities  would  spring  up  in  lonely  spots 
where  only  the  low  lapping  of  waters  or  the  howl  of  the 
wolf  could  then  be  heard. 

The  Abundance  of  Land.  --In  the  Northwest  Territory, 
which  now  embraces  the  states  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  part  of  Minnesota,  there  were,  at 
the  end  of  the  Revolution,  not  more  than  five  thousand 
white  people.  Many  of  them  were  French  settlers  living  at 
the  posts  founded  in  the  days  of  French  rule.  To  the  south 
in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  there  were  only  about  one 
hundred  thousand  white  people  in  1790,  vigorous  and  hardy 
pioneers  who  had  pushed  over  the  mountains  from  Virginia 
and  the  Carolinas,  and  established  themselves  in  scattered 
settlements  here  and  there  in  the  wilderness.  Thus  it 
seemed,  at  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century,  that 


198 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


there  was  plenty  of  land  in  the  regions  just  west  of  the 
original  thirteen  states  to  satisfy  the  land  hunger  of  the 
American  people  for  a  hundred  years. 

The  Louisiana  Country :  Napoleon  Appears  on  the  Scene. 
—  Yet,  strange  to  say,  Jefferson  had  not  long  been  in  office 
before  there  was  talk  of  buying  still  more  land  —  the  vast 


r>>, 


^^^s^^^^^S^^'^^ff-^^' 


THE  FIRST  CAPITOL  OF  OHIO  AT  MARIETTA 

Louisiana  Territory,  stretching  from  the  Mississippi  River 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  This  great  domain  had  fallen  to 
Spain  at  the  close  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  its  settlements  were  inhabited  by  French.  French 
explorers,  like  Joliet,  Marquette,  and  La  Salle,  had  been  the 
first  to  make  extensive  journeys  through  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  and  French  pioneers  had  established  posts  at  New 
Orleans,  St.  Louis,  and  many  points  in  the  river  region. 
The  names  of  Baton  Rouge,  Iberville,  Cape  Girardeau, 


THE   EXPANSION  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES         199 

and  other  towns  suggested  that  the  territory  belonged  of 
right  to  France.  Nevertheless  it  was  all  handed  over  to 
Spain  in  1763,  and  held  by  that  country  for  nearly  forty 
years,  when  another  turn  of  fortune  brought  it  back  for  a 
brief  period  to  the  old  owner. 

In  1800  Napoleon,  having  swept  over  all  western  Europe 
with  his  victorious  armies,  began  to  dream  of  a  new  French 
colonial  empire  beyond  the  seas.  He  had  forced  Spain  to 
sign  a  secret  treaty  ceding  Louisiana  to  France,  and  had 
started  to  make  arrangements  for  landing  troops  at  New 
Orleans,  before  his  new  plans  were  discovered  by  the  other 
countries. 

The  People  of  the  West  Covet  the  Louisiana  Territory.  — 
Meanwhile  the  people  of  the  western  part  of  the  United 
States  had  decided  that  they  wanted  the  Louisiana  country 
for  themselves.  After  the  Revolution,  some  of  them  had 
gone  across  the  Mississippi  and  found  rich  lands  for  settle 
ment.  Those  who  had  hilly  farms  in  Kentucky  and  Ten 
nessee  sought  more  fertile  and  level  fields  to  the  west. 

There  was  still  another  reason  why  Americans  on  the 
frontier  coveted  the  western  bank  of  the  Mississippi.  The 
farmers  raised  wheat  and  corn  and  cured  bacon  and  hams 
which  they  exchanged  in  the  East  for  manufactured  goods 
and  "  ready "  money.  The  long  land  journeys  over  the 
Appalachian  Mountains  were  trying  and  tedious,  and  the 
freight  rates  were  very  high.  The  only  easy  way  to  the 
East  was  down  the  Mississippi  and  around  the  Atlantic 
coast.  Cloth  and  nails  and  other  manufactures  could  be 
brought  over  the  mountains,  but  such  bulky  products  as 
grain  and  meat  simply  had  to  go  by  the  water  route. 

At  the  gateway  of  the  Mississippi  stood  a  foreign  power. 
Naturally  that  power  looked  with  misgivings  upon  the 
westward  expansion  of  the  American  people  and  sought  to 
put  obstacles  in  the  way.  Privileges  which  President 


200        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

Washington  had  secured  from  Spain  in  1795  were  suddenly 
withdrawn  in  1802.  Then  just  as  suddenly  came  the  news 
that  Louisiana  had  been  ceded  to  Napoleon,  whose  armies 
were  feared  throughout  the  world.  Americans  on  the 
eastern  seaboard,  who  had  been  indifferent  to  the  clamor  of 
frontiersmen  about  their  corn  and  bacon,  could  not  be 
blind  to  the  dangers  of  a  French  empire  at  their  own  back 
door. 

The  Crisis. — The  whole  country  was  stirred.  The  call 
for  war  ran  throughout  the  western  border,  expeditions  were 
organized  to  prevent  the  landing  of  French  troops  at  New 
Orleans,  and  President  Jefferson  was  flooded  with  petitions 
for  instant  and  firm  action.  In  the  end  fortune  favored  the 
United  States.  Napoleon  changed  his  mind  about  colonies. 
The  war  in  Europe,  which  had  been  stopped  for  a  few 
months,  was  renewed,  and  he  could  not  therefore  spare 
men  enough  to  occupy  Louisiana.  He  came  to  see  that  it 
was  folly  for  him  to  attempt  to  hold  that  territory  as  long 
as  Great  Britain  controlled  the  seas.  The  hour  had  come 
for  heroic  action  on  the  part  of  the  American  government, 
for  the  fate  of  the  nation  hung  in  the  balance. 

II.   THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE  AND  THE  EXPLORATION  OF 
THE  NEW  TERRITORY 

The  Louisiana  Purchase  (1803). -- Jefferson  was  fully 
alive  to  the  importance  of  the  issue.  "He  determined  to 
open  special  negotiations  with  Napoleon  looking  toward 
some  kind  of  settlement.  He  therefore  sent  James  Monroe 
to  Paris  with  power  to  buy  New  Orleans  and  West  Florida 
for  two  million  dollars.  To  Robert  Livingston,  however, 
belongs  the  real  credit  of  securing  Louisiana  to  the  United 
States.  He  was  the  American  Minister  to  France,  and  be 
fore  Monroe  arrived,  he  had  convinced  Napoleon  that  it 


THE   EXPANSION  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES         201 

would  be  wise  to  sell  territory  which  might  be  wrested  from 
him  at  any  moment  by  Great  Britain. 

Realizing  that  he  would  have  to  give  up  Louisiana, 
Napoleon  suddenly,  on  April  n,  1803,  offered  to  sell 
the  whole  domain  for  fifteen  million  dollars.  He  was  de 
nounced  in  Spain  and  France  for  betraying  both  coun 
tries,  but  he  had  made  up  his  mind  and  nothing  could 
change  it.  The  Treaty  of  Purchase  was  accordingly  drawn 
up  and  signed  on  April  30,  although  the  American  agents 
were  not  empowered  by  their  President  to  buy  so  much  land 
or  spend  so  much  money. 

The  Reaction  against  the  Purchase. --When  the  news  of 
the  treaty  reached  the  United  States,  the  people  were 
filled  with  astonishment,  and  no  one  was  more  astonished 
than  Jefferson  himself.  He  had  thought  of  buying  West 
Florida  and  New  Orleans  at  a  cost  of  two  million  dollars ; 
now  a  vast  wilderness  was  to  be  turned  over  to  the  United 
States  at  more  than  seven  times  the  sum  he  had  expected 
to  spend.  A  cry  went  up  at  once  against  the  whole  business. 
Jefferson's  political  enemies,  particularly  the  Federalists  of 
New  England,  denounced  the  scheme  and  demanded  that 
the  treaty  with  Napoleon  be  rejected  by  the  Senate  of  the 
United  States,  where  it  had  to  go  for  approval. 

Jefferson's  Decision.  —  Jefferson  himself  was  much  puz 
zled.  He  doubted  whether  the  federal  government  had 
the  power  to  purchase  new  territory,  because  there  was 
nothing  in  the  Constitution  about  .acquiring  more  land. 
He  disliked  adding  so  much  to  the  national  debt.  On  the 
other  hand  public  opinion  in  the  South  and  West  seemed  to 
favor  the  purchase,  and  his  advisers  told  him  that  under 
his  power  to  make  treaties  he  could  arrange  to  buy  terri 
tory.  He  finally  came  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was  wise  to 
close  the  bargain.  The  Senate  promptly  ratified  the  treaty. 
In  December,  1803,  the  French  flag  was  hauled  down  from 


202         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


The  Stars  and  Stripes  were  raised  over  the  government  building  in  Jackson  Square,  New 
Orleans,  when  Louisiana  Territory  was  formally  transferred  to  the  United  States. 


THE   EXPANSION  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES          203 

the  old  government  buildings  in  what  is  now  Jackson  Square 
in  New  Orleans,  and  the  Stars  and  Stripes  were  hoisted,  as  a 
sign  that  the  land  of  Coronado  and  De  Soto,  Marquette 
and  La  Salle,  had  passed  under  the  dominion  of  the  United 
States. 

The  Extent  of  the  New  Territory. --Thus  by  a  single 
stroke  the  original  area  of  the  United  States  —  even  then 
sparsely  settled  —  was  doubled.  While  the  boundaries  of 
the  purchase  were  somewhat  uncertain,  it  is  safe  to  say  that 
the  Louisiana  Territory  included  what  is  now  Arkansas, 
Missouri,  Iowa,  Oklahoma,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  South 
Dakota  and  large  parts  of  Louisiana,  Minnesota,  North 
Dakota,  Colorado,  Montana,  and  Wyoming.  The  farm 
lands  which  the  "  little  Americans "  on  the  eastern  coast 
declared  to  be  a  hopeless  wilderness  that  could  never  be 
settled,  were  within  a  hundred  years  fully  occupied,  and 
valued  at  slightly  less  than  seven  billion  dollars,  —  nearly 
five  hundred  times  the  price  paid  to  Napoleon.  The  faith 
of  those  who  looked  far  into  the  future  was  justified. 

The  Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition  (1804-1806). — Jef 
ferson  at  once  began  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  opening  of 
the  Louisiana  Territory  by  sending  an  expedition  to  explore 
the  new  country,  discover  its  resources,  and  lay  out  an 
overland  trading  route  to  the  Pacific  —  an  expedition  which 
Congress  had  authorized  before  the  Louisiana  Purchase. 

After  securing  an  appropriation  from  Congress  to  make 
the  survey,  he  chose  as  leaders  his  private  secretary,  Meri- 
wether  Lewis,  a  young  man  only  thirty  years  old,  who  had 
seen  military  service  and  frontier  life,  and  William  Clark,  ot 
Louisville,  an  experienced  frontiersman. 

Lewis  and  Clark  Reach  the  Pacific.  —  Soon  a  party  of 
brave  adventurers  was  made  up  and  went  into  regular 
training  for  the  journey.  There  were  carpenters  for  wood 
work  ;  blacksmiths  for  iron  work ;  expert  hunters  to  sup- 


204         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

ply  the  company  with  game ;  cooks  and  sugar  makers. 
They  engaged  in  target  practice  and  took  daily  exercise  so 
as  to  be  hardened  for  the  dangerous  trip.  When  at  length 
they  were  ready,  in  May,  1804,  they  set  out  from  their  camp 
opposite  St.  Louis  in  three  boats,  one  fifty-five  feet  long 
equipped  with  a  sail  and  oars.  Slowly  they  made  their 
way  against  the  swift  and  shallow  current  of  the  Missouri 


THE  REGIONS  EXPLORED  BY  LEWIS  AND  CLARK  AND  BY  ZEBULON  PIKE 

River,  always  on  the  watch  to  avoid  the  sand  bars  and  trunks 
of  fallen  trees.  In  spite  of  the  hardships  and  perils  of  hostile 
Indians,  they  pushed  upward  through  what  is  now  the  Da- 
kotas.  In  June,  1805,  they  arrived  at  the  Great  Falls  of  the 
Missouri  in  central  Montana. 

A  young  Indian  woman,  Sacajawea,  was  of  great  ser 
vice  in  guiding  the  explorers  along  the  upper  courses 
of  the  Missouri.  The  party  reached  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia  River  in  November,  1805.  They  lingered  here 
long  enough  to  form  some  notion  of  the  country,  to  pre 
pare  their  maps,  and  to  finish  writing  their  journal.  The 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES          205 

return  journey  was  far  easier,  and  they  were  able  to  reach 
St.  Louis  in  September,  1806,  after  having  covered  8000 
miles  in  two  years  and  four  months.  When  the  story  of 
this  heroic  exploit  was  published,  the  East  began  to  realize 
what  a  mighty  empire  awaited  the  coming  of  the  pioneer. 

The  Explorations  of  Zebulon  Pike.  -  -  The  same  year 
that  Lewis  and  Clark  started  for  the  Far  West,  Lieutenant 
Zebulon  M.  Pike,  at  the  head  of  an  expedition,  ascended 
the  Mississippi  to  Leach  Lake,  not  far  from  the  Canadian 
border.  After  his  return  from  this  journey  he  was  sent  out 
in  search  of  the  source  of  the  Red  River,  which  then  formed 
the  boundary  between  Louisiana  and  the  dominions  of 
Spain. 

While  exploring  in  a  southwesterly  direction  he  came  to 
the  Arkansas  River,  where  he  encountered  a  band  of  Pawnees 
with  scarlet  coats,  bridles,  and  blankets  of  Spanish  origin. 
From  these  Indians  he  learned  that  the  Spaniards  had 
heard  of  his  arrival  and  were  coming  to  capture  the  entire 
party.  Undaunted  by  this,  Pike  kept  on  his  way  west 
ward  until  he  climbed  the  famous  peak  which  now  bears  his 
name,  and  reached  the  western  slope  of  the  Rockies.  There 
he  turned  southward  and  crossed  the  Rio  Grande  unwit 
tingly  into  Spanish  territory,  where  he  was  captured  and 
taken  to  Santa  Fe,  and  then  south  into  Mexico.  When 
the  Spaniards  learned  from  his  papers  that  he  was  merely 
exploring  the  region  and  had  no  intention  of  seizing  any 
of  their  territory,  they  sent  him  back  to  the  Red  River 
boundary  of  the  United  States. 

Thus  by  three  expeditions,  one  by  Lewis  and  Clark  and 
two  by  Pike,  the  North,  the  Far  Northwest,  and  the  West 
were  mapped  out  with  greater  accuracy  than  ever  before, 
and  the  people  of  the  East  who  were  ready  for  migration 
were  informed  of  the  opportunities  for  trade  and  settlement 
in  the  Louisiana  Territory. 


206        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

III.    FLORIDA;  THE  PACIFIC  NORTHWEST 

Still  the  land  hunger  of  the  Americans  was  not  satisfiecL 
The  Father  of  Waters  was  open  to  the  sea,  but  all  the 
southern  states  and  territories  east  of  the  Mississippi  were 
cut  off  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  the  Floridas,  which  were 
in  the  possession  of  Spain.  Here  was  ground  for  dis 
satisfaction  akin  to  that  which  had  arisen  when  Spain  con 
trolled  Louisiana. 

The  Florida  Question.  American  Occupation. — -A  move 
ment  was,  therefore,  set  on  foot  to  take  possession  of  West 
Florida,  on  the  theory  that  it  really  belonged  to  the  United 
States,  and  to  secure  East  Florida  by  some  method. 

President  Monroe  instructed  General  Andrew  Jackson 
to  put  down  an  Indian  disturbance  in  the  southwest 
and  to  capture  the  marauders,  even  if  it  was  necessary 
to  follow  them  over  into  Spanish  territory.  Jackson 
took  this  as  a  hint  that  he  was  to  occupy  the  Floridas. 
He  wrote  to  the  President  that  if  the  possession  of  them 
was  desired,  he  could  accomplish  it  within  sixty  days. 
Without  waiting  for  an  answer  to  his  letter  he  started,  and 
in  the  spring  of  1818  he  had  practically  conquered  the 
coveted  region. 

The  Florida  Purchase.  —  Spain  made  the  best  of  the  affair 
by  handing  the  territory  over  to  the  United  States,  in  return 
for  an  agreement  on  the  part  of  the  latter  to  pay  American 
citizens  certain  claims  against  the  Spanish  government  to 
the  amount  of  five  million  dollars. 

On  February  22,  1819,  the  treaty  of  cession  was  signed, 
and  the  southern  boundary  of  the  United  States  east  of 
the  Mississippi  was  extended  to  its  "  natural "  limits.1  At 
the  same  time  the  two  countries  agreed  upon  the  bound 
ary  between  Spanish  Mexico  and  the  United  States  —  a  line 

1  Florida  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  state  in  1845. 


THE   EXPANSION  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES          207 

running  from  the  mouth  of  the  Sabine  River  in  a  direction 
northerly  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Thus,  before  a  quarter  of  the  new  century  had  elapsed, 
the  original  area  of  the  United  States  had  been  more  than 
doubled  and  the  boundaries  pushed  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
on  the  south,  and  to  the  Pacific  on  the  west. 
•  The  Oregon  Country  in  Dispute.  — •  In  the  Pacific  region, 
however,  the  rights  of  the  United  States  were  contested  by 
Great  Britain.  As  early  as  1670  King  Charles  II  had 
chartered  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  which  laid  claim  to 
all  the  distant  lands  to  the  north  and  west  of  Canada. 
The  Company  in  due  time  put  a  veritable  army  of  hunters, 
trappers,  and  explorers  in  the  wilderness ;  far  and  wide  its 
agents  went  into  the  Pacific  country,  opening  up  out-of-the- 
way  places  and  gathering  stores  of  furs  and  skins  to  be  sold 
in  European  markets.  In  1791-1795  George  Vancouver,  a 
navigator  in  the  service  of  the  British  government,  ex 
plored  the  entire  west  coast,  and  gave  to  the  world  a  map 
of  the  shore  from  San  Diego,  California,  to  Cook's  Inlet  in 
Alaska.  The  island  which  he  circumnavigated,  north  of 
the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  bears  his  name.  Citizens  of  the 
United  States  also  were  interested  in  the  Far  Northwest. 
While  Vancouver  was  making  his  celebrated  voyage,  Captain 
Robert  Gray,  of  Boston,  sailed  around  Cape  Horn  and  up 
along  the  coast,  discovering  in  1792  the  "River  of  the 
West,"  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  his  good  ship- 
"  Columbia."  On  the  basis  of  the  explorations  made  by 
Gray  and  other  captains,  the  United  States  undoubtedly 
had  valid  claims  on  the  Pacific  shore. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.  Why  did  Jefferson  refer  to  the  defeat  of  the  Federalists 
as  a  "Great  Revolution"?  In  what  sense  did  the  country  now 
"face  to  the  west"  and  in  what  sense  had  it  previously  "faced  to 
the  east"  ?  2.  Mark  on  an  outline  map  the  boundaries  of  the 
Louisiana  Territory.  How  did  Spain  come  into  possession  of  this 


208         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

territory?  How  did  France  regain  it?  3.  Why  did  the  Ameri 
can  settlers  west  of  the  Alleghenies  object  to  the  ownership  of  the 
Louisiana  Territory  by  a  foreign  power  ?  Why  was  Napoleon 
willing  to  sell  these  lands  to  the  United  States  ? 

II.  i.    When   and  for  what  price  did  the  United  States  pur 
chase  the  Louisiana  Territory  ?     2.    What  part  of  the  country 
objected  to  the  purchase?     For  what  reasons?     3.    Name  a  few 
of  the  resources  of  the  territory,  then  little  understood,  that  have 
much  more  than  repaid  the  original  purchase  price.     Give  other 
reasons  for  concluding  that  the  purchase  was  a  very  good  "bar 
gain."     4.    Why  did  Jefferson   send  out  the  expedition  of  Lewis 
and  Clark  ?     Trace  on  an  outline  map  the  route  that  Lewis  and 
Clark   took.     What   territory    did   they    explore   outside   of  the 
boundaries  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  ?     What  country  claimed 
the    ownership    of    this    territory    at    that    time?     5.    Describe 
Pike's  explorations.     Why  were  they  important  ? 

III.  i.    Locate  the  territory  known  as  East  and  West  Florida. 
How  did  the  United  States  come  into  possession  of  this  territory  ? 
2.   Why  did  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  both  claim  the 
Pacific  Northwest  ? 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  reasons  for  the  defeat  of  the  Federalist 
party  in  1800. 

See  Elson's  "Side  Lights  on  American  History,"  ch.  ii ;  Sparks's 
"The  Men  Who  Made  the  Nation,"  pp.  218-228;  Hart's  "Source 
Book,"  pp.  197-200. 

2.  Study  in  detail  one  of  the  following  topics  of  the  Lewis  and 
Clark  expedition.     Imagine  yourself  to  be  a  member  of  the  expedi 
tion  and  be  ready  to  give  to  the  class  an  account  of  what  you  might 
have  seen  and  done. 

Topics:  (a)  Preparing  for  the  journey;  (V)  events  of  the 
journey  up  the  Missouri  to  the  Great  Falls  in  Montana;  (c)  the 
trip  from  the  Great  Falls  to  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia ;  (d)  the 
return  journey. 

See  McMurry's  "Pioneers  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the 
West,"  ch.  i;  Elson's  "Side  Lights  on  American  History,"  ch.  vi; 
Tappan's  "American  Hero  Stories,"  pp.  207-217;  Hart's  "Source 
Book,"  pp.  206—209;  Brigham's  "Geographic  Influences  in 
American  History,"  pp.  275-276 ;  Lighton's  "  Lewis  and  Clark  " 
(see  topics  in  table  of  contents). 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE   CALL  OF  THE   LAND   IN  THE   GREAT  WEST 

The  last  chapter  contained  an  account  of  the  way  in 
which  the  United  States  overleaped  the  boundaries  which 
had  been  set  by  the  treaty  with  Great  Britain  at  the  close 
of  the  War  for  Independence,  and  reached  out  on  the  west 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  on  the  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
We  have  come  to  a  far  more  romantic  and  moving  story  - 
the  story  of  how  brave  pioneers  explored  and  settled  the 
millions  of  acres  unoccupied  at  the  end  of  the  Revolution 
and  the  additional  millions  acquired  from  France  and 
Spain,  and  developed  those  regions  into  new  states. 


I.   THE  WESTERN  COUNTRY  PREPARED  FOR  SETTLEMENT: 
ROUTES  ACROSS  THE  MOUNTAINS 

The  Older  States  Surrender  Their  Claims  to  Western 
Lands.  —  Before  the  United  States  could  go  very  far  in  arrang 
ing  for  the  settlement  of  the  west  it  had  to  decide  several 
important  matters.  In  the  first  place,  Virginia,  New  York, 
Connecticut,  and  Massachusetts  had  claims  upon  large 
areas  of  the  region  north  of  the  Ohio  and  west  of  the  Alle- 
ghenies;  so  they  were  loath  to  see  independent  territories 
and  states  set  up  in  that  region.  Their  claims  to  western 
lands  rested  on  old  charters,  royal  grants,  and  Indian  treaties. 
These  were  in  many  respects  conflicting,  but  each  state  was 
determined  to  yield  none  of  its  pretensions.  So  heated  grew 
P  209 


210        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

the  dispute  over  their  respective  rights  that  it  threatened 
to  break  up  the  Union.  Eventually  the  contestants  were 
induced  to  surrender  their  lands  to  the  United  States  and 
permit  Congress  to  dispose  of  the  Northwest  Territory  for 
the  good  of  the  whole  nation  (p.  168). 

The  Government  of  the  Northwest  Territory.  —  Con 
gress  thereupon  arranged  for  a  government,  surveyed  the 
lands,  and  prepared  the  way  for  settlers.  By  the  famous 


SURVEYING  IN  THE  NORTHWEST  TERRITORY;   THE  CONGRESSIONAL  TOWNSHIP 

Ordinance  of  1787  it  was  provided  that  there  should  be 
a  governor,  secretary,  and  judges  appointed  by  Congress, 
and  that  when  there  were  five  thousand  free  males  in  the 
territory  a  legislature  chosen  by  the  landowners  should 
be  set  up. 

The  spirit  of  a  new  age  was  found  in  the  provisions  of 
law  to  the  effect  that  there  should  be  no  slavery  in  the 
territory;  that  there  should  be  complete  freedom  of  re 
ligious  worship.  Furthermore  a  large  amount  of  land 
was  reserved  as  a  trust  to  supply  funds  for  education. 


THE  CALL  OF  THE  LAND  IN   THE  GREAT  WEST     21 1 

Out  of  this  territory  there  were  later  created  and  admitted 
to  the  Union  the  following  states  :  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Michigan,  and  Wisconsin. 


THE  NORTHWEST  TERRITORY,  SHOWING  THE  BOUNDARIES  OF  THE  STATES  THAT 
WERE  LATER  CREATED  FROM  IT 

The  Territory  South  of  the  Ohio.  -  -  Three  years  after 
the  passage  of  the  Northwest  Ordinance,  namely,  in  1790, 
the  Congress  of  the  United  States  arranged  for  the  gov 
ernment  of  the  territory  south  of  the  Ohio  River.  All 
that  region  was  formed  into  one  district  for  the  time  being, 
and  the  people  were  granted  the  same  privileges  as  those 


212         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

in  the  district  north  of  the  Ohio.  One  important  ex 
ception  was  made,  in  that  slavery  was  permitted  in  the 
southern  territory.  Out  of  this  vast  domain  the  states  of 
Tennessee,  Alabama  in  part,  and  Mississippi  in  part  were 
created  and  admitted  to  the  Union. 

Barriers  and  Gateways  to  the  West.  --  It  was  one  thing 
to  provide  for  the  government  of  the  wilderness  and  another 
thing  to  get  the  settlers  there  safely.  In  our  time,  when 
one  may  leave  New  York  City  in  the  evening  and  wake  up 
the  next  morning  beyond  the  Allegheny  Mountains,  it  is 
difficult  to  imagine  the  state  of  travel  in  those  old  days. 
Except  at  a  few  points  nature  had  imposed  great  barriers 
to  the  overland  traveler. 

Three  of  the  less  difficult  routes  across  the  Appalachian 
barrier  became  very  important  gateways  to  the  Middle 
West : 

1.  To  the  north,  in  New  York,  lay  a  long  level  stretch 
opening  into  the  Ohio  country,   through    which   the  New 
York  Central  Railroad  now  runs. 

2.  In  the  middle  of  the  barrier,  the  Ohio  River  offered 
gateway  to  the  West  and  South,  and  once  over  the  Alle- 
ghenies,  the  settler  had  a  comparatively  easy  time  floating 
on  a  raft  to  his  new  home.     The  headwaters  of  the  Ohio,  at 
the  junction   of  the   Allegheny  and    Monongahela    rivers, 
where  stood  the  little  village  of  Pittsburgh,  naturally  be 
came  a  point  to  which  lines  of  travel  from  the  East  drew 
together,    and   from  which   lines   of  travel   beyond  spread 
out. 

3.  Farther  to  the  south,  the  Cumberland  Gap  offered  an 
other  gateway  to   the  West,  through  which   much   of  the 
emigration  from  the  southern  states  poured  into  the  back 
country. 

The  Four  Eras  of  Travel.  -  -  The  ease  with  which  travel 
ers  and  pioneers  could  reach  the  western  regions  had 


THE   CALL  OF  THE  LAND   IN  THE   GREAT  WEST      213 

much  to  do  with  the  number  who  went  and  the  loca 
tion  of  first  settlements.  So  important  were  the  methods 
of  travel  that  historians  have  rightly  divided  the  de 
velopment  of  the  western  country  into  four  periods,  as 
follows  : 

1.  The    forest-trail    and    old-road    era,    which    extended 
from  the  earliest  time  down  almost  to  the  end  of  the  eight 
eenth  century. 

2.  The    river-route   epoch,   which    began    near    the    end 
of  the  American   Revolution  and  closed  when  the  steam 
boat  appeared  on  the  Ohio  River. 

3.  The  steamboat  period,  beginning  about   1810,  reach 
ing  its  height  about  1850,  and  declining  since  1870. 

4.  The  railway  period,  beginning  about  1835. 

The  American  Epic.  —  By  these  methods  of  travel  tens 
of  thousands  of  men,  women,  and  children  passed  from 
the  eastern  shores  over  the  mountains  and  spread  in 
every  direction,  until  they  had  conquered  the  wilderness, 
filled  the  plains,  occupied  the  valleys  and  the  mountain 
fastnesses,  and  at  length  reached  the  very  edge  of  the 
continent  at  the  Pacific  Ocean.  If  the  forests  and  plains 
and  deserts  and  canons  could  speak,  what  a  story  they 
could  tell  of  the  visitors  that  have  passed  by:  singly 
or  in  pairs  or  companies,  now  blazing  their  way  through 
trackless  forests,  now  laying  out  treeless  plains  into  farms, 
now  searching  for  mines  and  treasure  in  the  mountains, 
now  staggering  hot  and  thirsty  across  the  parched  deserts, 
conquering  by  will  and  courage  all  obstacles  in  their  search 
for  adventure  or  gold  or  a  free  home ! 

The  old  and  the  young,  the  gay  and  the  gloomy,  the  selfish 
and  the  generous,  people  of  all  races  and  all  climes  have 
tramped  or  ridden  across  the  vast  continent  in  search  of 
El  Dorado.  Some  started  out  with  courage  and  high  hopes 
and  were  murdered  by  Indians  or  perished  of  thirst  and 


214         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

starvation    by  the   wayside.      Others,  poor    and    lowly,  in 
seeking  a  way  westward,  found  riches  and  fame. 

The  stories  of  Jason  and  the  Golden  Fleece  or  of  the 
wanderings  of  Ulysses  or  other  ancient  heroes  are  no  more 
novel  or  entertaining  than  the  countless  epics  and  romances 
that  may  be  gleaned  from  the  pages  of  American  history. 
We  all  read  with  human  interest  the  story  of  the  wander 
ing  of  the  Jews  from  Egypt  into  their  new  home,  or  of  the 
Teutonic  migrations  which  overthrew  the  Roman  Empire 
and  laid  the  foundations  of  modern  Europe.  The  story 
of  the  western  settlement  is  just  as  fascinating  and  exciting. 
As  Indian  trails  are  being  retraced,  portage  paths  un 
covered,  relics  dug -up,  and  old  newspapers,  diaries,  and 
memoirs  brought  out  of  dust  heaps  and  trunks  to  be  re 
printed,  we  are  discovering  stories  of  our  own  history  as 
delightful  and  thrilling  as  the  tales  of  Homer  which  the 
Greeks  cherished  beyond  all  measure. 

And  what  a  setting  for  the  story  !  There  was  vastness  be 
yond  the  comprehension  of  the  little  nations  of  old.  There 
were  rivers  long  and  wide  and  deep  —  the  Mississippi  and  its 
tributaries  containing  a  volume  of  water  greater  than  that 
of  all  the  rivers  of  Europe  combined,  save  the  Volga.  There 
were  lakes  like  oceans  —  the  Great  Lakes  alone  embracing 
nearly  half  the  fresh  water  of  the  earth.  There  were  regions 
so  far  spread  that  the  kingdoms  of  Europe  seem  like 
gardens  by  comparison  —  the  Louisiana  purchase  alone 
being  large  enough  to  contain  England,  France,  Germany, 
Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  Norway,  and  Sweden,  with  land  to 
spare.  Precious  metals  were  so  abundant  that  the  hoard 
ings  of  the  Mexicans  and  the  Peruvians,  which  the  Spaniards 
seized,  seemed  trivial  by  comparison.  Such  was  the  herit 
age  that  fell  to  our  young  nation  at  the  opening  of  the 
nineteenth  centurv. 


THE  CALL  OF  THE  LAND   IN  THE  GREAT  WEST      215 

II.     WESTWARD  TO  THE  MISSISSIPPI 

Although  the  history  of  western  migration  forms  one 
story,  it  is  necessary,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  to  tell  it  in 
several  parts.  The  first  of  them  we  may  call  "  Westward 
to  the  Mississippi,"  although,  as  we  have  seen,  that  chapter 
was  not  finished  before  a  new  one  bearing  the  title  "From 
the  Mississippi  to  the  Pacific  "  was  opened. 


fP*wO«t<RM.i 

A  pioneer  family  would  place  all  its  earthly  possessions  on  a  flatboat  and  would  float 
swiftly  down  the  current  to  its  destination. 

The  Region  South  of  the  Ohio  First  Settled.  -  -  The  first 
part  of  our  story  "  Westward  to  the  Mississippi  "  embraces 
what  we  have  called  above  the  forest-trail  and  old-road 
era,  a  period  extending  from  the  earliest  times  down  to 
the  closing  years  of  the  eighteenth  century.  During  this 
period  the  migration  was  largely  limited  to  the  district  south 
of  the  Ohio  River.  There  were  two  main  causes  for  this. 

I.  Until  long  after  the  Revolution  the  territory  to  the 
north  of  the  Ohio  was  controlled  largely  by  the  Indians,  es 
pecially  after  the  French  lost  it  in  1763.  The  Red  Men, 
anxious  to  save  their  hunting  grounds,  lurked  along  the 
rivers  to  rob  and  scalp  the  pioneers. 


216        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

2.  There  were  special  reasons  why  the  people  of  Virginia 
and  the  Carolinas  were  ready  to  leave  their  homes  and 
settle  in  the  wilderness :  (a)  The  land  of  those  states,  par 
ticularly  along  the  eastern  shores,  was  owned  in  great  plan 
tations  tilled  by  slaves.  The  poor  man  could  not  compete 
with  slave  labor  in  the  fields,  (b)  Cotton  and  tobacco 
rapidly  destroyed  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  made  neces 
sary  the  opening  of  new  lands,  (c)  It  was  easier  for  the 
frontiersmen  of  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas  to  push  over 
into  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  than  it  was  for  the  New 
England  farmer  to  journey  across  New  York  or  Pennsyl 
vania  into  the  Ohio  country. 

Daniel  Boone.  —  Of  the  pioneers  of  this  first  era  in  the 
movement  to  the  Mississippi,  Daniel  Boone  is  the  most 
famous,  and  in  his  life  is  told  the  story  of  hundreds  of 
others  who  braved  the  same  dangers.  Boone  began  his 
explorations  in  the  Kentucky  region  as  early  as  1769,  and 
the  year  before  the  Declaration  of  Independence  he  had 
established  the  town  of  Boonesboro.  Before  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century  he  found  the  country  too  "  civil 
ized  "  for  his  restless  spirit  and  crossed  the  Mississippi 
into  Missouri,  saying :  "  It  is  high  time  to  move  when  a 
man  can  no  longer  fell  a  tree  for  firewood  within  a  few 
yards  of  his  cabin  door." 

The  Movement  through  the  Cumberland  Gap.  —  After 
Boone  blazed  the  way  into  the  Kentucky  region,  others 
were  not  long  in  following.  The  route  laid  out  along  the 
trail  through  the  Cumberland  Gap  in  1769  was  slowly 
transformed  into  a  respectable  wagon  road.  After  the 
Revolution  the  southern  seaboard  states  encouraged  the 
settlement  of  their  western  lands.  In  1788  North  Carolina 
opened  a  land  office  in  the  Watauga  Valley  and  granted  farms 
on  easy  terms  :  every  head  of  a  family  could  lay  out  640 
acres  on  his  own  account,  100  acres  for  his  wife,  and  100 


THE   CALL  OF  THE  LAND  IN  THE  GREAT  WEST       217 

acres  for  each  child  at  the  low  price  of  ten  cents  an  acre. 
The  next  year  Virginia  offered  cheap  lands  in  the  western 
regions,  on  condition  that  within  a  year  a  house  be  built 
and  corn  planted  on  each  farm  granted.  South  Carolina  in 
1784  invited  settlers  to  establish  homes  on  her  Cherokee  lands. 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  --  Residents  on  the  seaboard 
rushed  west  to  get  these  cheap  lands.  The  blue-grass 


From  a  painting  by  Gilbert  White 

DANIEL  BOONE'S  FIRST  GLIMPSE  or  KENTUCKY 

regions  were  soon  filled  up.  Kentucky,  at  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  had  a  larger  population  than  Delaware, 
Georgia,  Rhode  Island,  or  New  Hampshire,  among  the 
original  thirteen  states.  While  Washington  was  President 
both  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  were  admitted  to  the  Union. 
No  wonder  that  the  eastern  states  feared  that  this  "  New 
West  "  would  soon  begin  to  rule  the  country. 

The  River-Route  Period.      The  Region  North  of  the  Ohio 
Opened. --The  river-route  period,  as  we  have  pointed  out, 


21  8         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


began  with  the  closing  years  of  the  eighteenth  century 
and  extended  to  the  coming  of  the  steamboat.  While  the 
regions  to  the  south  of  the  Ohio  were  rilling  up,  and  Louis 
ville,  founded  in  1778,  was  becoming  an  important  trading 
village,  significant  events  were  taking  place  in  the  North. 
During  Washington's  term  as  President  the  Indians  in  the 
Northwest  Territory  were  defeated  in  several  severe  battles 
and  forced  to  make  peace  in  1794.  The  next  year  the 
British  surrendered  the  forts  along  the  lake  regions 


-    • 


TSf£f*Bt&^*&&<& 

^.*$j^jM^ 

'^*^*tf%+  h&7$' 

.•  — .  .     jtff'*X  .<"    '    / 


. 
-. 

From  an  old  print 

PITTSBURGH  IN  1790 

which  they  had  been  holding  since  the  Revolution.     The 
Ohio  River  route  was  at  last  safe. 

The  Movement  down  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi.  —  Soon  the 
stream  of  pioneers  began  to  flow  through  Pittsburgh.  Emi 
grants  from  the  East  went  overland  to  that  point,  carrying 
their  household  goods  in  wagons  and  driving  their  cattle. 
At  Pittsburgh  any  kind  of  boat  could  be  bought  —  a  light 
canoe  for  one  or  two  passengers,  or  a  barge  that  would 
carry  ten  tons  of  freight,  household  goods,  plows,  horses, 
and  cattle.  When  the  pioneer  family  reached  the  river,  it 
would  place  all  its  earthly  possessions  on  a  flatboat,  and, 
guided  by  a  printed  chart  of  the  river's  rocks  and  snags, 
it  would  float  swiftly  down  the  current  to  its  destination 


THE   CALL  OF  THE  LAND   IN  THE  GREAT  WEST       219 

anywhere  between  Pittsburgh  and  the  mouth  of  the  Missis 
sippi. 

Before  the  end  of  the  century  the  banks  of  the  Ohio 
were  lined  with  flourishing  trading  posts.  Wheeling  was 
founded  in  1769,  Marietta  and  Cincinnati  in  1788.  After 
the  Indian  danger  was  over,  these  towns  grew  rapidly  and 
became  the  centers  from  which  people  spread  outward  to 
the  northwest. 

Into  the  region  above  the  Ohio  River  two  streams  of 
immigration,  one  from  the  North  and  the  other  from  the 
South,  flowed  together  and  mingled  their  currents  in  the 
central  regions  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois.  These 
settlers  were  not  adventurers,  but -industrious  homeseekers 
who  "  located  "  their  lands,  built  cabins,  organized  govern 
ment,  and  "buckled  down"  to  the  long,  hard  task  of 
creating  a  civilization  in  the  wilderness. 

Trade  with  the  East  through  New  Orleans. --The  river 
movement  which  peopled  the  banks  of  the  Ohio  and  the 
Mississippi  naturally  increased  immensely  the  traffic  down 
to  New  Orleans  and  outward  to  the  Atlantic  coast  towns. 
Barges  or  flatboats  holding  two  or  three  tons  or  even  more 
of  farm  produce  were  floated  down  to  the  "Crescent  City." 
When  the  flatboats  reached  New  Orleans,  the  goods  were 
transferred  to  ocean-going  vessels,  and  the  barges  broken  up 
and  sold  for  lumber,  the  boatmen  returning  overland. 

The  Need  of  a  Road  over  the  Mountains.  -  -  The  people 
of  the  Ohio  country,  though  they  sold  much  of  their 
produce  through  New  Orleans,  could  not  take  back  manu 
factured  articles.  These  they  had  to  buy  from  the  mer 
chants  in  the  Ohio  River  towns/ who  brought  most  of  their 
supplies  over  the  mountains  from  the  East.  This  was  a 
tedious  and  expensive  way  of  trading.  It  cost  $125  a  ton 
to  carry  freight  from  Philadelphia  to  Pittsburgh,  where  it 
was  distributed  to  such  points  as  Wheeling,  Cincinnati, 


220        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

and  Louisville.  Often  in  the  spring  and  in  bad  weather, 
the  overland  teams  would  be  stuck  in  the  muddy  roads 
and  traffic  would  be  blocked  for  days  at  a  time. 

The  need  of  a  well-built  road,  from  the  coast  into  the 
Ohio  region  became  apparent  even  before  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  After  a  period  of  agitation  Congress, 
in  1806,  passed  a  law  providing  for  the  construction  of  a 
great  national  highway  binding  the  East  and  the  West. 

The  National  Road  Opened.  —  In  1811,  the  first  con 
struction  contracts  were  let,  and  within  a  few  years  fast 


Wms.  Eng.  Co.,  N.Y. 

THE  CUMBERLAND.  ROAD,  SHOWING  ALSO  THE  SECTION  ON  THE  WESTERN  END 
THAT  WAS  NEVER  COMPLETED 

stages  were  running  between  Washington  and  Wheeling. 
This  "  National  "  or  Cumberland  Road  started  from  Cum 
berland,  wound  through  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania  to 
Wheeling,  and  then  ran  almost  straight  across  Ohio,  Indi 
ana,  and  Illinois  into  Missouri.  The  extreme  western  end 
was  never  completed  by  the  United  States  government 
because  of  the  rise  of  railway  transportation ;  but  the  east 
ern  section  proved  to  be  a  great  boon  to  the  pioneers  in  the 
early  days. 

Travel  East  and  West.  —  Along  with  the  development  of 
the  freight  business,  there  soon  opened  a  rapid  mail  and 
passenger  service.  The  United  States  government  con 
tracted  with  stage  companies  to  carry  mails,  just  as  it  does 
now  with  the  railway  companies.  Every  day  the  Great 


THE  CALL  OF  THE  LAND   IN  THE  GREAT  WEST     221 

Eastern  Mail  left  the  towns  along  the  national  road  for  the 
East,  making  the  journey  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  or  two  hundred  miles  a  day.  In  1837  the  Columbus, 
Ohio,  paper  boasted  that  it  was  able  to  print  the  news  of 
the  death  of  the  King  of  England  and  the  accession  of 
Queen  Victoria  thirty-eight  days  after  the  events  had 
happened.  When  Victoria  died,  in  1901,  the  Columbus 
papers  chronicled  the  news  on  the  same  afternoon. 

The  stages  seem  always  to  have  been  crowded.  Sena 
tors,  Representatives,  stock  buyers,  traders,  merchants, 
gamblers,  cattle  drivers,  and  pioneers  traveled  the  long 
way  together,  cracking  jokes,  talking  about  the  campaigns 
of  Napoleon  in  Europe,  drinking  at  the  inns,  enjoying  an 
occasional  race  with  a  rival  stage  or  even  experiencing  the 
excitement  of  a  highway  robbery.  As  the  express  stage 
would  swing  past,  scattering  letters  and  papers  bearing 
news  from  "back  home"  in  the  East,  settlers  along  the 
way  would  rush  out  to  hear  the  gossip  and  get  their  mail. 
It  no  longer  seemed  so  far  from  the  old  home.  Soon  the 
less  timid  began  to  venture  out  and  the  number  of  settlers 
increased  rapidly. 

In  1810,  Ohio,  then  a  flourishing  state,  boasted  of  more 
than  two  hundred  thousand  inhabitants,  Indiana  had  about 
twenty-five  thousand,  Illinois  twelve  thousand,  and  Michi 
gan  five  thousand.  Before  another  decade  elapsed  Indiana 
and  Illinois  were  admitted  to  the  Union. 

ACROSS  THE  MISSISSIPPI 

The  Admission  of  Missouri  and  Louisiana  to  the  Union.  — 
The  Louisiana  Territory  and  the  rich  soil  of  Missouri  at 
tracted  both  the  free  farmers  from  the  East  and  the 
southern  planters  with  their  slaves.  The  cotton  and  sugar 
lands  to  the  southward,  which  had  already  been  partly 


222      THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

developed  by  the  French  and  Spanish  settlers,  invited  slave- 
owning  planters  in  large  numbers.  New  Orleans  afforded 
a  good  market,  and  a  touch  of  civilization  which  even  the 
hardiest  pioneer  did  not  despise.  It  is  not  surprising 
therefore  to  find  in  1810  about  75,000  inhabitants  in  the 
lower  Louisiana  Territory  and  the  people  demanding  ad 
mission  to  the  Union.  They  pointed  out  that  the  Treaty 
of  Cession  to  the  United  States  had  guaranteed  that  they 
should  in  time  be  permitted  to  organize  a  state  government 
and  enjoy  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  American  citizens. 

When  their  plea  was  taken  up  in  Congress,  it  was 
violently  opposed  by  men  from  the  older  eastern  states ; 
but  the  party  of  Jefferson  was  in  a  majority  in  Congress, 
and  Louisiana  was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1812.  A  few 
years  later  (1821),  Missouri,  with  a  population  of  sixty-six 
thousand,  found  a  place  among  the  states  after  one  of  the 
hardest  fought  contests  in  the  history  of  the  country. 

Summary  of  New  States.  --  By  the  close  of  1821  nine 
new  states  had  been  added  to  the  fifteen  Atlantic  states:1 

Kentucky,  1792.          Louisiana,  1812.  Illinois,  1818. 

Tennessee,  1796.         Indiana,  1816.  Alabama,  1819. 

Ohio,  1803.  Mississippi,  1817.          Missouri,  1821. 

No  wonder  men  of  the  old  generation  whose  affections  bound 
them  to  the  states  of  the  heroic  period  of  the  Revolution 
began  to  talk  about  the  subjection  of  the  Old  America  to 

the  New. 

III.     THE  LIFE  OF  THE  PEOPLE  ON  THE  FRONTIER 

The  Essential  Democracy  of  the  West.  —  Most  of  the 
pioneers  of  the  early  day$  were  poor.  The  great  majority 
of  them  had  no  earthly  goods  except  what  they  took  over 

1  Vermont,  claimed  by  both  New  York  and  New  Hampshire,  had  been  ad 
mitted  as  the  fourteenth  state  in  1791.  Maine  was  admitted  with  Missouri 
(P-  370)- 


THE   CALL  OF  THE  LAND   IN  THE  GREAT  WEST     223 

the  mountains  in  their  wagons.  Few,  if  any,  were  very 
rich,  and  there  was  no  upper  class  such  as  constituted 
the  ruling  element  in  the  eastern  and  southern  states. 
Each  frontiersman  could  readily  secure  a  farm  of  some 
size  and  thus  become  the  possessor  of  his  own  home.  No 
one  had  to  work  very  long  for  any  one  else  as  a  "  hired 
hand."  The  farmer,  secure  in  the  possession  of  his  land 
and  home,  could  snap  his  fingers  at  the  world,  knowing 
that  the  doings  of  kings,  principalities,  and  the  powers  of 
Europe,  or  the  course  of  events  beyond  the  Alleghenies, 
could  not  deprive  him  of  his  daily  bread.  There  was  a 
genuine  equality  of  people  based  on  similarity  of  occupation 
and  opportunity,  and  there  was  a  spirit  of  liberty  unique  in 
our  history. 

The  Pioneer  Farmers.  --  Each  family  was,  in  fact,  almost 
entirely  independent  of  the  outside  world.  In  the  fire 
places,  built  out  of  rough  stones  or  logs  and  covered  with 
plaster,  wood  from  the  neighboring  forest  was  burned.  In 
the  huge  Dutch  ovens  or  before  the  fire  on  the  hearth  the 
family  baking  was  done.  In  the  corner  of  the  one  room  of 
the  cabin  stood  the  spinning  wheel  and  loom  where  carpets 
and  coarse;  cloth  were  made.  In  the  cellars  or  in  caves 
stores  of  food  for  the  winter  were  laid  by.  Among  the 
rafters  or  in  a  smokehouse  hung  the  hams,  bacon,  and 
quarters  of  beef  cured  for  family  use. 

If  a  farmer  needed  a  new  room  to  his  house  or  a  new  barn, 
his  neighbors  collected  on  the  spot,  cut  the  trees,  raised  the 
structure,  and  finished  it  off  with  a  celebration,  enlivened 
by  drinks  from  "the  little  brown  jug."  If  his  wife  needed 
new  bed  clothes  for  the  winter,  she  gathered  in  the  women 
of  the  neighborhood  and  held  a  "  quilting  bee."  Corn 
was  shucked  at  "  husking  bees,"  where  the  young  folks 
had  rollicking  times.  When  a  forest  was  to  be  cleared 
for  planting,  neighbors  gathered,  cut  the  trees,  and  rolled 


224        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

the  logs  up  in  huge  piles  for  burning.     The  "  log  rollings  " 
were  social  affairs  in  those  early  times. 

The  Pioneer's  Family.  —  Young  people  married  before 
they  left  their  teens.  When  a  couple  was  married,  it  was  a 
common  thing  for  the  neighbors  to  "  pitch  in  "  and  build 
a  cabin  on  short  order ;  father  would  furnish  the  groom 
with  a  horse  and  a  cow;  mother  would  present  the  bride 


From  an  old  print 
The  women  of  the  neighborhood  gathered  together  and  held  a  quilting  bee. 

with  a  few  cups,  saucers,  and  pans ;    and  with  crude  fur 
nishings  the  young  people  would  start  their  housekeeping. 

There  were  usually  many  children,  and  they  always  were 
welcome  to  help  with  the  chores  and  in  the  fields.  A 
traveler  in  Kentucky  in  1802  said  :  {l  There  are  few  houses 
which  contain  less  than  four  or  five  children."  A  little 
later  another  traveler  in  Ohio  declared  :  '  Throughout  the 
whole  country  when  you  see  a  cabin  you  see  a  swarm  of 
children."  There  were  no  "  leisure-class  "  men  or  women. 


THE   CALL  OF  THE   LAND   IN  THE   GREAT  WEST     225 

Every  man,  woman,  and  child  had  work  to  do  in  helping 
to  support  the  family.  Besides  the  hard  housework,  includ 
ing  spinning  and  weaving,  most  of  the  women  helped  their 
husbands  in  the  fields.  The  old  lines, 

Man's  work  is  from  sun  to  sun ; 
Woman's  work  is  never  done, 

applied  with  peculiar  force  to  the  women  of  pioneer  days. 

Dangers  and  Discomforts  of  the  Pioneer's  Life.  —  All 
the  people,  men,  women,  and  children  alike,  had  to  be 
courageous.  Life  in  the  wilderness  was  lonely.  Frequently 
it  was  ten  or  twenty  miles  through  the  forests  to  the  nearest 
neighbor.  One  of  the  authors  of  this  book  knew  a  pioneer 
woman  who  in  her  youth  was  accustomed  to  ride  along 
blazed  trails  for  miles,  visiting  those  who  were  sick  or  in 
need,  and  more  than  once  narrowly  escaping  being  killed 
by  panthers.  When  the  winters  were  long  and  cold,  a  family 
might  be  out  of  touch  with  the  world  for  months  at  a  time. 
If  a  person  was  sick,  home  remedies  usually  had  to  be  relied 
upon,  for  it  might  be  a  day's  journey  on  horse  to  the  nearest 
doctor.  When  one  of  the  family  died,  the  rest  would  make  a 
rude  coffin  out  of  hewn  boards  and  bury  the  dead,  without 
any  funerary-services,  save  perhaps  a  silent  prayer,  under 
a  tree  or  in  an  open  field,  where  watch  would  be  kept  over 
the  body  against  prowling  wolves.  One  of  the  most  touch 
ing  incidents  in  Lincoln's  career  is  the  death  of  his  mother  in 
a  frontier  settlement  in  Indiana  in  1818;  it  was  not  until 
some  months  afterward  that  he  could  find  a  preacher  to  say 
a  few  simple  words  over  her  grave. 

Schools  in  the  New  Country.  -  -  There  was  little  time  for 
the  refinements  of  life,  although  the  pioneers  were  not  utterly 
neglectful  of  education.  From  the  very  first,  lands  were 
set  aside  to  be  sold  or  rented  to  furnish  money  for  schools ; 
but  the  funds  were  meager,  and  it  was  common  for  the 


226        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

school  teacher  to  add  to  his  or  her  scanty  wage  by  "  board 
ing  round  "  among  the  families  that  sent  children  to  the 
school.  Naturally  only  the  essentials  -  "  reading  'ritin', 
and  Arithmetic  "  -  were  taught  at  first,  and  the  teachers 
were  often  almost  as  ignorant  as  the  pupils.  "  Keepin' 
ahead  of  the  class  "  was  regarded  as  quite  a  feat  for  the 
young  teacher. 

The  schoolhouses  were  log  cabins  with  small  windows 
generally  made  of  oiled  skin  or  paper.  The  floor  was  made 
of  "  puncheons  "  -  logs  smoothed  off  with  the  ax  and  laid 
close  together  on  the  earth.  Desks  there  were  none.  Each 
pupil  sat  upon  a  bench  made  out  of  a  short  log  split  down 
the  center  and  mounted  upon  four  legs.  A  fireplace  fur 
nished  the  heat,  and  generally  enough  smoke  to  make  the 
children  weep.  If,  in  anger  at  their  pranks,  the  master  shut 
the  children  out  of  the  cabin,  the  children  would  reply  by 
placing  a  board  over  the  chimney  and  "  smoke  the  teacher 
out."  It  was  a  fortunate  child  that  received  three  months' 
"  schooling  "  out  of  every  twelve.  The  hard  labor  of  the 
house  and  the  fields  left  little  time  for  "  larninV 

The  Influence  of  Pioneer  Life  upon  Political  Opinions.  - 
These  rude  and  free  and  equal  conditions  of  life  had  a  deep 
influence  on  the  political  ideas  of  the  people.  Protecting 
themselves  against  man  and  beast  by  their  own  strong 
arms,  they  had  little  need  to  call  on  the  government  for 
help.  Government  meant  to  them  more  taxes ;  so  they 
thought  that  the  less  the  government  interfered  with  them 
the  better.  In  fact,  many  of  them  lived  practically  with 
out  a  government,  on  the  far  frontier.  What  little  they 
had  in  their  counties  and  thinly  populated  states  was  simple. 
The  public  business  was  not  difficult,  and  any  fairly  intelli 
gent  person  could  carry  it  on.  It  required  only  a  few  officers, 
-  sheriffs,  keepers  of  land  records,  and  treasurers. 

So  the  pioneers  thought  that  there  should  be  a  constant 


THE  CALL  OF  THE  LAND  IN  THE  GREAT  WEST      227 

rotation  in  office  —  a  passing  of  the  offices  from  man  to 
man  in  order  to  give  as  many  as  possible  a  share,  and  a 
chance  at  the  "  ready  money "  paid  as  salaries.  The 
pioneers  were  jealous  of  the  rich  people  of  the  East,  and 
thought  that  they  made  too  much  money  out  of  the  "jobs  " 
with  the  government  at  Washington.  Such  were  the 
political  ideas  of  the  frontiersmen  of  the  West.  Soon  we 
shall  see  how  they  affected  the  politics  of  the  whole  country. 

QUESTIONS   AND   EXERCISES 

I.  i.    In  what  way  did  the  claims  of  the  older  states  upon  the 
western  lands   delay  the  development  of  the  western   country  ? 
How  were  these  claims  finally  settled  ?     2.    How  did  the  govern 
ment  of  the  territory  south  of  the  Ohio  differ  from  the  government 
of  the  Northwest  Territory?     3.    The  Northwest  Territory  was 
laid  out  in  townships  about  six  miles  square.      In  each  township 
one  section  was  reserved  for  the  support  of  public  schools.      Find 
this  section  on  the  illustration,  page  210.     4.   Trace  upon  an  out 
line  map  the  three  important  gateways  from  the  seaboard  states 
to  the  western  country. 

II.  i.    Why  was  the  territory  south  of  the  Ohio  settled  before 
the  Northwest  Territory  ?     2.    Why  was  the  national  road  con 
structed  ?     3.    Trace  the  course  of  the  road  from  Cumberland, 
Maryland,  through  Wheeling,   Zanesville,   Columbus,   and   Rich 
mond  to  Indianapolis.     4.    Determine  from  a  map  of  the  middle 
Atlantic  states  the  number  of  mountain  ridges  that  had   to  be 
crossed    before    the   Ohio    was   reached.      5.    How  did  it  happen 
that  the  westward  movement  continued   beyond  the  Mississippi 
long  before  the  country  to  the  east  of  the  Mississippi  had  been  well 
settled  ?     6.    Why  was  there  opposition  in  the  North  and  East 
to  the  admission  of  Louisiana  ?     Why  were  the  southern  people 
more  generally  in  favor  of  admitting  this  state  ? 

III.  i.    In  what  ways  did  the  life  of  the  pioneers  who  settled 
west  of  the  Alleghenies  differ  from  the  life  of  those  living  in  the 
seaboard  states  ?     Why  was  the  pioneer  likely  to  be  more  "demo 
cratic"  ?     More   self-reliant?       2.    Why  were   the    pioneers    not 
likely    to   consider   education    as   important   as   it   is   considered 
to-day  ? 


228         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Find  out  all  that  you  can  about  Daniel  Boone  and  tell  what 
he  did  to  make  himself  remembered  as  the  most  famous  of  the 
western  pioneers. 

See  McMurry's  "Pioneers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,"  ch.  v; 
Roosevelt  and  Lodge's  "Hero  Tales  from  American  History," 
pp.  19-28;  Bass's  "Stories  of  Pioneer  Life,"  pp.  33-45. 

2.  Imagine  yourself  a   member  of  a   family  emigrating  from 
eastern  Pennsylvania  to  southern  Indiana  about  1810.     Describe 
the  journey  that  you  might  have  taken  from  Harrisburg  to  Pitts 
burgh  and  thence  down  the  Ohio  by  flatboat. 

See  Hart's  "How  Our  Grandfathers  Lived,"  pp.  109-113; 
Bass's  "  Stories  of  Pioneer  Life,"  pp.  54-68  ;  Brooks' s  "  Stories 
of  the  Old  Bay  State,"  pp.  174-182;  Gulliver's  "  Daniel  Boone." 


CHAPTER  XIII 

TROUBLESOME  FOREIGN  AFFAIRS:  THE  WAR  OF   1812  AND 
LATIN-AMERICAN  RELATIONS 

The  work  of  conquering  the  wilderness,  undoubtedly  im 
portant,  was  by  no  means  the  sole  concern  of  the  people  of 
the  United  States  during  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Although  the  farmers  and  planters  could  readily 
win  their  daily  bread  from  the  soil,  they  could  not  live  by 
bread  alone.  They  had  to  have  manufactures  and  other 
goods  from  abroad ;  in  order  to  buy  they  had  to  sell  the 
produce  of  their  plantations  and  farms.  American  shippers 
engaged  in  this  business  sailed  to  almost  every  port  of  the 
world.  Their  success  was  founded  upon  the  right  to  range 
the  seas  and  trade  with  all  countries.  Without  this  com 
merce,  ships  would  have  rotted  at  the  wharves,  ship  yards 
would  have  been  closed,  working  people  and  merchants 
would  have  been  idle,  and  tons  of  bacon,  corn,  cotton, 
tobacco,  and  other  produce  of  the  soil  would  have  become 
worthless  in  the  hands  of  the  farmers  and  planters. 

For  this  reason,  the  great  war  raging  between  England 
and  France,  wThich  threatened  American  commerce,  was  a 
matter  of  deep  anxiety  to  our  government. 

I.   THE  WAR  IN  EUROPE  INVOLVES  AMERICAN  COMMERCE 

England  and  France  Blockade  the  Coast  of  Western  Eu 
rope. —  Great  Britain  and  France  wanted  to  prevent  each 
other  from  receiving  goods  from  the  United  States.  In 
May,  1806,  England,  in  a  determined  effort  to  starve  out 

229 


230        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

France,  declared  that  the  coast  of  Europe  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Elbe  River  to  Brest  was  blockaded.  In  other  words, 
she  served  warning  on  all  the  other  countries  in  the  world 
that  her  ships  of  war  and  her  merchant  vessels  fitted  out  as 
privateers  would  seize  all  ships  —  no  matter  to  whom  they 
belonged  —  which  attempted  to  enter  or  leave  any  ports 
along  the  coast  between  these  two  points. 

Inasmuch  as  the  United  States  had  hundreds  of  ships 
carrying  goods  to  France,  this  meant  either  a  destruction 
of  our  French  trade,  or,  at  all  events,  the  seizure  of  many 
American  ships  attempting  to  go  into  or  out  of  those  ports. 
This  action  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain  was  resented  by 
the  Americans,  for  it  reduced  them  to  desperate  financial 
straits. 

Napoleon  Forbids  Trade  with  the  British  Isles.  —  How 
ever,  they  did  not  receive  any  better  treatment  at  the 
hands  of  the  French,  for  Napoleon,  in  November,  1806, 
replied  to  the  English  blockade  by  forbidding  all  trade  with 
Great  Britain.  This  meant  that  French  war  vessels  would 
seize  American  ships  bound  to  or  from  English  ports.  Since 
the  American  trade  with  England  was  much  larger  than  the 
trade  with  France,  this  was  a  desperate  blow  struck  at 
American  shipowners  and  merchants  and  planters,  whose 
property  was  liable  to  be  confiscated  at  any  time  by  Na 
poleon's  men  of  war. 

America's  Protests  Are  in  Fain.  —  Of  course  the  Amer 
icans  made  violent  protest  against  such  high-handed  action. 
Great  Britain,  a  year  later,  relaxed  her  strict  blockade  and 
declared  that  any  ship  bound  to  France  that  did  not  carry 
munitions  of  war  would  be  permitted  to  complete  its  jour 
ney,  if  it  touched  at  an  English  port,  secured  a  license,  and 
paid  a  heavy  tax.  This  slight  gain  for  American  interests 
was  quickly  offset,  because  Napoleon,  a  few  months  after 
ward,  announced  that  any  ship  which  complied  with  this 


TROUBLESOME   FOREIGN  AFFAIRS  231 

English  order,  by  going  into  an  English  port  on  the  way  to 
France,  would  be  seized  by  his  government. 

Thus  the  Americans  were  in  a  sad  plight.  Their  ships  and 
goods  bound  for  England  were  liable  to  be  captured  by  the 
French.  Their  goods  and  ships  bound  for  France  were 
liable  to  be  taken  by  the  English  if  the  order  about  stopping 
and  paying  a  tax  was  not  obeyed.  If  they  did  stop  and  pay 
the  tax  they  were  almost  certain  to  be  seized  by  the  French. 
Thousands  of  Americans  interested  in  this  trade,  which  was 
going  to  ruin,  demanded  war  —  some  against  France  and 
some  against  England. 

Jefferson  a  Man  of  Peace.  -  -  Jefferson  himself  loved  peace 
and  hated  war.  Probably  there  was  no  man  in  the  United 
States  more  anxious  than  he  to  avoid  bloodshed.  In  fact, 
during  the  eight  yeaTs  of  his  presidency  (1801-1809)  his 
chief  troubles  arose  from  his  efforts  to  keep  the  peace.  He 
sent  Commodore  Preble  over,  in  1803,  to  punish  the  Medi 
terranean  pirates  who  were  preying  on  American  commerce, 
but  he  wanted  no  war  with  England  or  France. 

The  Embargo  Act  (1807). --In  the  emergency,  Jefferson 
suggested  a  remedy  which  proved  to  be  worse  than  the  dis 
ease.  In  1806  Congress  had  passed  an  act  prohibiting  the 
importation  of  British  goods  and  merchandise  into  the 
United  States.  Jefferson  then  proposed  a  more  drastic  step  ; 
namely,  that  Congress  should  pass  an  embargo  act  forbidding 
all  vessels  to  leave  port.  Congress  accepted  his  scheme  and 
enacted  the  law  in  December,  1807.  .Those  who  favored 
this  plan  thought  that  they  would  be  able  to  bring  both 
France  and  England  to  terms  by  thus  cutting  off  their  sup 
plies  from  America. 

Hard  Times  the  Result.  -  -  The  effect  of  the  embargo  was 
the  ruin  of  trade.  The  South  and  the  West  especially  suf 
fered,  for  they  were  completely  dependent  upon  the  exchange 
of  cotton,  tobacco,  and  other  produce  in  Europe.  The 


232         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

North  was  in  distress  also.  Shipowners  let  their  vessels  lie 
idle  in  the  harbors  hoping  for  a  change  of  policy.  Thirty 
out  of  forty  thousand  sailors  were  suddenly  thrown  out  of 
work.  The  prices  of  foreign  goods  doubled.  Lumbermen 
and  fishermen  were  reduced  to  beggary,  and  farmers  offered 
their  lands  for  sale. 

The   Embargo    Act    Repealed;     the    Non-Intercourse    Act 
Passed  (1809) .  -  -  The  laws  forbidding  trade  did  not  have 


BRITISH  NAVAL  OFFICERS  ON  BOARD  AN  AMERICAN  SHIP  TO  SEARCH  FOR 
BRITISH-BORN  SAILORS 

the  desired  effect  in  bringing  Great  Britain  and  France  to 
terms.  They  only  exasperated  American  shippers  and 
merchants  all  the  more.  Men  who  obeyed  the  laws  were 
ruined.  Hundreds  refused  to  obey  them  and  sent  their 
ships  out  in  spite  of  the  embargo,  or  smuggled  goods  over 
into  Canada  and  Florida  for  shipment  to  Europe.  Con 
gress  was  compelled  to  give  some  heed  to  the  protests 
which  arose.  In  February,  1809,  it  repealed  the  Embargo 
Laws,  and  passed  instead  of  them  a  Non-intercourse  Law 


TROUBLESOME   FOREIGN  AFFAIRS  233 

which  forbade  trade  with  England  and  France  while  per 
mitting  it  with  all  other  European  nations.  As  most  of  the 
trade  was  with  these  two  countries,  this  measure  gave  little 
relief. 

England  Impresses  American  Sailors.  —  In  addition  to 
the  quarrel  over  trade,  there  was  another  source  of  Ameri 
can  irritation  against  Great  Britain.  Being  in  great  need 
of  sailors  for  her  navy,  England  had  adopted  the  prac 
tice  of  stopping  American  ships,  searching  them,  and  car 
rying  away  British-born  sailors  discovered  on  board. 
England  maintained  the  doctrine,  "Once  an  Englishman, 
always  an  Englishman  "  -  a  doctrine  not  accepted  by  the 
United  States.  In  many  cases  it  was  difficult  to  tell  whether 
sailors  were  English-born  or  American.  Both  spoke  the  same 
language,  and,  owing  to  their  roving  life,  they  seldom  had 
papers  showing  where  they  were  born  or  to  which  country 
they  belonged.  The  English  sea  captains,  perhaps  by  mis 
take,  carried  away  scores  of  men  who  were  real  American 
citizens.  It  can  readily  be  understood  how  incensed  the 
American  people  must  have  been  when  they  heard  of  the 
repeated  overhauling  of  American  ships  and  the  seizure  of 
American  citizens  to  serve  in  the  British  navy. 

Jefferson  Refuses  a  Third  Term.  —  In  the  midst  of  these 
troubles  Jefferson's  second  term  expired.  Some  of  his 
friends  urged  him  to  accept  another  term ;  but  he  declined 
saying  that  reelection  might  become  habitual  and  election 
for  life  follow.  In  refusing  the  third  term,  he  set  an  exam 
ple  to  all  succeeding  presidents. 

James  Madison  Becomes  President  (1809-1817).  — Jeffer 
son's  successor,  James  Madison,  was  not  any  better  fitted  to 
be  President  in  troublous  times.  He  was  by  temper  a 
man  of  peace,  and  had  been  interested  in  civil  government 
rather  than  in  military  affairs.  He  had  been  a  member  of 
the  convention  which  drafted  the  Constitution  of  the  United 


234 


HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


States.  He  had  helped  in  securing  its  ratification.  He 
had  served  many  terms  in  the  Virginia  legislature,  and  in 
the  Congress  of  the  United  States.  After  the  dispute 

between  Hamilton  and  Jefferson 
arose,  he  gave  his  powerful  support 
to  the  Republican  party,  and  as 
their  trusted  leader  was  elected 
President  in  1808. 

Impressment  Continues.  The 
Chesapeake  Affair. — When  Madi 
son  took  the  oath  of  office  on  March 
4th,  1809,  he  found  that  he  had 
entered  a  "  hornets'  nest."  In 
fact,  without  any  -declaration  of 
war,  the  American  and  British 
ships  were  already  fighting  on  the  high  seas.  Indeed,  two 
years  before  the  British  ship  Leopard  had  fired  on  the 
American  frigate  Chesapeake,  killed  three  men,  wounded 
eighteen  others,  and  seized  four  sailors. 

Resentment  against  this  was  still  smouldering  when 
another  outrage  was  committed  in  May,  1811.  A  British 
frigate  stopped  an  American  vessel  near  the  New  York  harbor 
and  seized  another  American  citizen.  This  last  affair  so  dis 
turbed  the  Americans  that  even  the  peaceful  Madison  ordered 
a  warship,  the  President,  to  go  out  and  punish  the  of 
fenders.  The  President  sighted  a  British  vessel  and  poured 
several  broadsides  into  it. 


JAMES  MADISON 


II.     THE  WAR  OF  1812 

War  Declared  against  England.  -  -  The  irregular  fighting 
brought  on  a  declaration  of  war  against  Great  Britain.  In 
the  Congress  that  assembled  in  December,  1811,  there  were 
a  number  of  young  men,  called  War  Hawks,  led  by  John  C. 


TROUBLESOME   FOREIGN  AFFAIRS 


235 


Calhoun,  of  South  Carolina,  and  Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky, 
who  demanded  immediate  war  on  England.  They  moved 
the  East  by  calling  attention  to  the  depredations  on  com 
merce,  and  they  excited  the  West  by  promising  the  early 
conquest  of  Canada  —  and  more  land. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  Napoleon,  in  his  proclamations,  had 
shown  as  little  regard  for  American  rights,  but  he  had  not 


CARTOON  or  THE  WAR  OF  1812 

had  the  same  opportunity  to  carry  his  words  into  effect. 
The  Americans  had  not  forgotten  that  the  French  had 
helped  the  United  States  in  the  War  for  Independence ;  and 
it  was  easier  to  stir  up  hatred  against  the  former  enemy, 
Britain.  President  Madison,  though  opposed  to  war,  knew 
that  he  could  not  be  reflected  if  he  stood  out  against  the 
war  party.  On  June  18,  1812,  he  approved  the  declara 
tion  of  war  on  Great  Britain  by  Congress. 

In  proclaiming  the  war  the  government  of  the  United 


236         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

States  declared:  (i)  that  the  British  had  been  encouraging 
the  Indians  to  attack  American  citizens  on  the  frontier ; 
(2)  that  they  had  been  ruining  American  trade  by  their 
blockades ;  (3)  that  they  had  insulted  the  American  flag  by 
stopping  and  searching  our  ships ;  and  (4)  that  they  had 
illegally  seized  American  sailors  and  forced  them  to  serve 
on  British  war  vessels. 

New  England  against  the  War.  The  Hartford  Conven 
tion. —  Although  this  war  was  very  popular  in  the  West 
and  South,  it  was  disliked  by  the  New  Englanders  be 
cause  it  actually  meant  a  destruction  of  their  trade  on  the 
high  seas.  It  was  even  worse  for  New  England  shipowners 
and  merchants  than  an  embargo,  because,  in  spite  of  the 
law,  they  had  been  able  to  slip  out  some  goods  arid  ships. 
Now  that  war  was  declared  they  could  not  even  smuggle, 
and  they  were  compelled  to  furnish  money  and  men  for 
a  conflict  which  they  did  not  approve. 

Some  of  the  citizens  of  New  England  approached  near  to 
treason  in  resisting  the  attempts  of  the  United  States  to  levy 
troops  there.  The  Senate  of  Massachusetts  in  1813  re 
solved  that  the  war  was  "  waged  without  justifiable  cause." 
The  following  year  a  convention  was  held  at  Hartford, 
Connecticut,  at  which  several  amendments  to  the  Con 
stitution  were  proposed  with  a  view  to  making  it  im 
possible  for  the  southern  and  western  states  to  control  the 
country. 

Misfortunes  of  the  American  Armies.  —  Not  only  was 
the  country  divided  against  itself;  it  was  ill  prepared  for 
hostilities.  It  relied  mainly  on  raw,  undisciplined  volun 
teers  and  militiamen  and  could  not  provide  even  them 
with  sufficient  supplies.  On  the  land  the  Americans  won 
little  glory,  except  at  New  Orleans  at  the  very  close  of  the 
contest.  Although  they  made  attacks  on  Canada  and  won 
fame  for  fighting  at  Chippewa  and  Lundy's  Lane,  on 


TROUBLESOME   FOREIGN  AFFAIRS 


237 


the  whole  their  losses  in  the  North  were  greater  than  their 
gains.  They  were  finally  driven  out  of  Canada  and  even 
compelled  temporarily  to  give  up  Detroit  to  the  British. 

The  Capitol  at  Washington  Burned.  —  In  addition  to  being 
defeated  in  these  attempts  in  the  North,  the  Americans 
suffered  the  humiliation  of  having  their  capital  ravaged 
by  the  British.  In  August,  1814,  an  expedition  landed 


Wm«.  Eog.  Co., 


SCENE  OF  THE  WAR  OF  1812 


from  the  British  fleet  in  the  Chesapeake  Bay  and  marched 
quickly  to  Washington,  where  it  destroyed  by  fire  the  Capi 
tol,  the  "White  House,"  and  several  other  public  buildings. 
President  Madison  was  forced  to  flee  for  his  life.  The 
British  then  moved  on  Baltimore,  driving  the  weak  American 
militia  before  them.  The  British  fleet,  however,  had  been 
unable  to  reduce  Fort  McHenry,1  which  guarded  the  city. 
The  attempt  was  therefore  abandoned. 

1  The  attack  inspired  Francis  S.  Key  to  write  the  "Star  Spangled  Banner." 


238         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

The  Naval  Exploits. -- The  unfortunate  events  on  land, 
however,  were  in  part  offset  by  unexpected  successes  on 
the  sea.  In  1813  Oliver  Hazard  Perry,  in  command  of  a 
small  number  of  American  warships  on  Lake  Erie,  defeated 
and  captured  the  entire  British  fleet  stationed  there,  —  re 
porting  his  victory  in  the  famous  dispatch,  "  We  have  met 
the  enemy,  and  they  are  ours."  On  Lake  Champlain  the 


;'(MiJ-''U 


The  undaunted  Perry  passed  in  an  open  boat  from  the  flagship  Lawrence  to  the  Niagara 
in  the  face  of  the  enemy. 


Americans  were  likewise  successful.  On  the  high  seas  the 
frigate  Constitution,  popularly  known  as  Old  Ironsides,  won 
many  victories  over  British  ships.  The  Argus  boldly  sailed 
into  the  English  Channel,  and  destroyed  twenty-seven  ships. 
In  every  battle  American  sailors  showed  skill  and  courage. 
Even  when  the  Chesapeakewas  beaten  by  the  British  Shannon, 
the  gallant  American  commander,  Lawrence,  who  lay  dying 
of  mortal  wounds,  cheered  his  men  by  the  plucky  order, 
"Don't  give  up  the  ship." 


TROUBLESOME   FOREIGN  AFFAIRS  239 

During  the  two  and  one  half  years  of  the  War  of  1812, 
the  United  States  government  commissioned  more  than 
five  hundred  privateers,  which  captured  over  1300  British 
vess'els,  most  of  them  merchantmen  carrying  valuable  car 
goes.  The  American  victories  at  sea  seriously  disturbed 
the  British,  who  thought  their  navy  invincible,  and  in  1814 
they  sent  over  a  big  fleet  whj.ch  put  an  end  to  such  triumphs 
and  blockaded  the  entire  coast  of  the  United  States. 

Jackson's  Victory  at  New  Orleans  (1815).  —  Indeed  the 
war  would  have  been  discouraging  in  the  extreme  to  the 
Americans,  if  it  had  not  been  for  an  astonishing  victory  at 
New  Orleans  where  General  Andrew  Jackson  was  in  com 
mand.  Hearing  that  the  British  were  coming,  his  men 
hastily  threw  up  breastworks  of  earth  and  cotton  bales. 
On  January  8,  1815,  the  British  assaulted  the  American 
intrenchments,  only  to  be  driven  back  in  disorder  with  a 
loss  of  more  than  two  thousand  men,  while  Jackson  lost 
only  seventy-one.  The  news  of  this  remarkable  victory 
brought  great  rejoicing  throughout  the  country,  because 
it  was  about  the  only  consolation  the  Americans  had  dur 
ing  the  war. 

The  Treaty  of  Ghent  (1814). --There  was  a  certain 
tragedy  about  this  victory,  because  in  December,  before 
the  battle  was  fought,  American  ministers  had  met  the 
British  representatives  at  Ghent  and  signed  a  treaty  of 
peace.  News  of  the  treaty  did  not  reach  this  country 
until  February.  When  it  did  arrive,  every  one  was  sur 
prised  to  find  that  nothing  had  been  said  about  the  seizure 
of  American  sailors,  the  searching  of  ships,  the  destruction 
of  trade  with  Europe,  or  the  stirring  up  of  the  Indians  on 
the  frontier.  Both  countries  were  heartily  sick  of  the  war 
and  glad  to  have  peace.  The  omissions  of  the  treaty,  as  it 
happened,  were  not  serious,  for  the  European  wars  were 
brought  to  a  close  with  the  defeat  of  Napoleon  at  Water- 


240        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

loo  in  June,  1815.  Great  Britain  no  longer  impressed 
sailors,  searched  ships,  and  confiscated  American  goods 
bound  for  the  continent. 

Political  Results  of  the  War :  The  Bank  and  the  Protec 
tive  Tariff.  --The  chief  effects  of  the  war  were  to  be  noticed 
in  politics  at  home.  The  unpatriotic  conduct  of  the  Federal 
ists  in  New  England  had  disgraced  the  party,  and  after  1816 
it  ceased  to  make  nominations  for  the  presidency.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  followers  of  Jefferson  adopted  two  leading 
Federalist  measures :  they  established  a  second  United 
States  bank  in  the  place  of  the  old  bank,  the  charter  of 
which  had  expired  in  1811;  and  they  applied  the  principle 
of  a  high  protective  tariff  in  their  revenue  law  of  1816. 
(See  pp.  249-250.) 

III.   THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 

The  Latin-Americans  Throw  Off  the  Spanish  Yoke.  — 
The  foreign  troubles  of  the  United  States  were  by  no  means 
at  an  end  on  the  signing  of  the  Peace  of  Ghent.  A  storm 
cloud  appeared  in  another  sky.  During  the  Napoleonic 
wars,  the  Spanish  colonies  in  South  America  began  to  assert 
their  independence.  Between  1810  and  1825,  Mexico,  New 
Granada  (now  Colombia),  Venezuela,  Peru,  Buenos  Ayres, 
Ecuador,  Chile,  and  other  states,  following  the  example  set 
by  the  United  States  in  1776,  declared  themselves  to  be  free 
republics. 

The  Holy  Alliance. — The  Spanish  king  was,  of  course, 
much  distressed  at  the  loss  of  his  colonies,  but  alone  he 
could  not  conquer  them  because  his  army  and  navy  had 
been  depleted  in  the  Napoleonic  wars.  The  only  hope  for 
him  lay  in  securing  help  from  some  of  the  neighboring 
European  rulers;  and  the  outlook  was  favorable.  In  1815, 
an  agreement,  popularly  known  as  "  The  Holy  Alliance," 


TROUBLESOME   FOREIGN  AFFAIRS  241 

had  been  made  between  the  rulers  of  Austria,  Russia,  and 
Prussia,  for  the  purpose  of  suppressing  in  Europe  just  such 
revolutions  as  had  happened  in  South  America.  This  al 
liance  of  monarchs  was  regarded  in  the  United  States  as  a 
union  of  kings  to  prevent  the  ruJe  of  the  people  everywhere. 

American  Freedom  Imperiled.  —  The  Americans  thought 
their  fears  were  confirmed  when,  in  1822,  a  conference 
composed  of  representatives  of  Russia,  Austria,  Prussia, 
and  France,  met  to  discuss  revolutions  which  had  just 
broken  out  in  Spain  and  Italy.  The  Czar  of  Russia, 
who  by  the  way  coveted  the  west  coast  of  North  America, 
proposed  to  send  an  army  to  Spain  to  help  the  king.  In 
fact,  all  the  powers  except  England  doubtless,  would  have 
been  glad  to  aid  Spain  in  conquering  her  rebellious  colonies. 

The  United  States  at  that  time  was  a  small  and  weak 
country.  Only  a  few  years  before  it  had  closed  an  un 
happy  war  with  Great  Britain,  and  the  British  still  possessed 
great  dominions  to  the  north.  If  Spanish  rule  had  been  re 
stored  by  the  intervention  of  European  monarchs,  a  strong 
foreign  power  would  have  threatened  the  United  States  on 
the  south  and  west.  If  the  Czar  of  Russia  had  been  per 
mitted  to  make  good  his  claims  to  territory  along  the  Pacific 
coast,  there  would  have  been  a  new  danger  in  that  quarter. 
Had  the  United  "States  been  thus  surrounded  by  countries 
ruled  by  monarchs,  the  future  of  the  republic  would  have 
been  in  peril. 

Fortunately  England  refused  to  aid  the  Holy  Alliance. 
The  English  had  built  up  a  thriving  business  with  the  new 
Latin-American  republics,  and  they  were  in  no  mood  to  see 
Spanish  dominion  over  them  restored,  for  a  Spanish  mo 
nopoly  over  their  trade  would  have  followed.  This  action 
on  the  part  of  the  British,  which  really  placed  the  British 
navy  between  the  monarchies  of  Europe  and  the  New 
World,  greatly  relieved  the  Americans. 


242         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

The  Monroe  Doctrine  (1823).  --  It  was  amid  these  cir 
cumstances  that  President  Monroe  (1817-1825)  in  his  mes 
sage  of  December  2,  1823,  made  a  statement  to  Congress 

which  has  become  famous  through 
out    the    world    as     '  The   Monroe 
Doctrine."     He    called  attention  to 
the  dangers   which    would    threaten 
the  United  States  in  case  the  kings 
of  Europe  tried  to    restore  Spanish 
rule    in     Latin-America.      He    said 
\Athat  he  regarded   "any  attempt  on 
w   their   part   to    extend    their    system 
^    to   any    portion   of  this   hemisphere 

as    dangerous    to    our    peace     and 

TAMES  MONROE  _         ,, 

safety. 

The  President  added  that  we  would  not  interfere  with 
the  existing  colonies  and  dependencies  of  European  powers, 
but  that  as  to  the  governments  which  had  declared  their  in 
dependence  : 

We  could  not  view  any  interposition  for  the  purpose  of  oppressing 
them  or  controlling,  in  any  other  manner,  their  destiny  by  any 
European  power,  in  any  other  light  than  a  manifestation  of  an 
unfriendly  disposition  toward  the  United  States. 

In  another  part  of  his  message  President  Monroe  referred  to 
a  declaration  issued  in  1821  by  the  Czar  of  Russia  claiming 
rights  to  North  American  territory  extending  from  the 
Bering  Straits  far  down  along  the  Pacific  coast.  In  call 
ing  attention  to  this  claim,  President  Monroe  warned  the 
Old  World  that : 

The  American  Continents,  by  the  free  and  independent  condi 
tion  which  they  have  assumed  and  maintained,  are  henceforth 
not  to  be  considered  as  subjects  for  future  colonization  by  any 
European  powers. 


TROUBLESOME   FOREIGN  AFFAIRS  243 

In  stating  this  doctrine,  which  ever  since  has  borne  his 
name,  President  Monroe  took  an  important  step.  He  de 
clared,  in  fact,  to  the  powers  of  Europe  (i)  that  the  United 
States  would  help  to  maintain  the  independence  of  the 
Latin-American  republics,  and  (2)  that  no  European  power 
would  be  permitted,  unopposed,  to  increase  its  territory  and 
dominions  on  the  American  continents.  Under  this  doc- 

(  A) 

trine  the  United  States  assumed  the  role  of  protector  of  the 
Latin-American  countries. ^9lt  also  served  a  warning  on  the 
European  nations  that  they  could  not  interfere  in  the  affairs 
of  North  or  South  America  without  involving  the  United 
States.  ^)  l?**^  • 

It  was  a  long  time  before  the  people  of  the  United  States 
were  drawn  into  any  more  serious  controversies  with  Euro 
pean  powers.  From  the  accession  of  President  John  Quincy 
Adams  in  1825  down  to  the  Civil  War,  they  were  able  to 
devote  most  of  their  attention  to  developing  industry  and 
agriculture  at  home,  and  peaceful  trade  and  commerce 
abroad. 

The  Czar  of  Russia,  no  doubt  mindful  of  the  Monroe  Doc 
trine,  never  pressed  his  claims  in  the  West.  Friendly  rela 
tions  were  established  with  Great  Britain,  even  to. the  ex 
tent  of  abolishing  all  battleships  on  the  Great  Lakes  and 
all  forts  on  the  Canadian  border.  Compared  with  the 
armed  watch  on  the  Rhine  this  open  border  between  two 
great  nations  —  once  bitter  enemies  —  deserves  to  be  classed 
among  the  achievements  of  humanity. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.  Why  did  the  war  between  England  and  France  so 
seriously  affect  American  commerce  ?  2.  What  is  meant  by  an 
embargo  on  exports  ?  What  were  the  results  of  the  Embargo  act 
of  1807  r  What  were  the  important  differences  between  the  Em 
bargo  act  and  the  Non-intercourse  act?  3.  How  did  England 


244        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

justify   her    policy   of   searching  American  ships  and  impressing 
sailors  ? 

II.  I.    Make  a  list  of  the  events  that  led  to  the  War  of  1812. 

2.  Why    were    the     New    England     states    against    the    war  ? 

3.  Why  were   the  Americans    generally  unsuccessful   on    land  ? 

4.  Are  there  any  reasons  why  they  should  have  been  more  suc 
cessful  on   sea?     5.    What  were  the  provisions  of  the  Treaty  of 
Ghent  ?     In  your  opinion  were  the  Americans  victorious  in  the 
War  of  1812? 

III.  I.    At  what  time  did  the  Spanish  colonies  in  Mexico  and 
South  America  win  their  independence  from  Spanish  rule  ?     Why 
was  Spain  unable  to  resist  the  movement  toward  independence  ? 

2.  What   was   the    "Holy   Alliance"    and   why  was   it   formed? 
In   what    way    was    it     a    danger    to    democracy     in    America  ? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  the    "  Monroe  Doctrine"?     Why  was  it 
important  ? 

Review :  Find  from  the  table  of  Presidents  (Appendix,  p.  645)  the 
number  of  terms  served  and  the  dates  of  the  beginning  and  ending 
of  the  administrations  of  Jefferson,  Madison,  and  Monroe.  Make 
a  list  of  the  impoitant  events  in  each  administration. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Who  was  Napoleon  and  what  did  he  do  to  make  his  name 
remembered  ? 

See  Tappan's  "England's  Story,"  pp.  318-322;  Guerber's 
"Story  of  Modern  France,"  pp.  127-239. 

2.  Tell  the  story  of  one  of  the  following  events  of  the  War  of 
1812: 

a.  The  Constitution  and  The  Guerriere 

See  Hart's  "  How  Our  Grandfathers  Lived,"  pp.  243-249. 

b.  The  Capture  of  Washington 

See  Hart's  "  How  Our  Grandfathers  Lived,"  pp.  274-282. 

c.  The  Battle  of  New  Orleans 

See  Roosevelt  and  Lodge's  "  Hero  Tales  from  American 
History,"  pp.  139-147. 

3.  Give  as  many  reasons  as  you  can,  explaining  the  large  in 
fluence  that  the  Monroe  Doctrine  has  had  in  American  history. 


OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW  245 

OUTLINE  FOR  REVIEW  OF  POLITICAL  AND  TERRITORIAL  GROWTH 
OF  THE  NEW  NATION  (CHAPTERS  X,  XI,  XII,  XIII) 

I.    Starting  the  new  government. 

A.  The  first  amendments. 

B.  Hamilton's  measures  for  financing  the  government. 

C.  Opposition   to   Hamilton's   measures :     the   Whisky   Re 

bellion. 

D.  The  development  of  the  political  parties. 

E.  Relations  with  Europe. 

1.  Troubles  with   England  due  to  the  French  Revolu 

tion  :   Jay's  Treaty. 

2.  Troubles  with  France. 

a.  The  X  Y  Z  Mission. 

b.  The  "informal  war"  with  France. 

F.  Domestic  problems  growing  out  of  the  French  Revolu 

tion  :  The  Alien  and  Sedition  laws. 

II.    The  expansion  of  the  new  nation. 

A.  The  attitude    of   Jefferson's  party  toward  western   de 

velopment. 

B.  The  Louisiana  Purchase. 

1.  Reasons  for  the  purchase. 

a.  The  desire  for  more  land   and  for  a  free  water- 

route  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

b.  The  danger  of  French  dominion  in  the  West. 

c.  Napoleon's  willingness  to  sell  the  territory. 

2.  Results  of  the  purchase. 

a.  Criticism  immediately  following  the  purchase. 

b.  Expeditions  to  explore  the  new  territory. 

C.  The  Florida  Purchase. 

III.    The  organization  and  settlement  of  the  Middle  West. 

A.  Surrender  by  the  older  states  of  their  claims  to  western 

territory. 

B.  The  organization  of  the  Northwest  Territory :   the  Or 

dinance  of  1787. 

C.  The  organization  of  the  region  south  of  the  Ohio. 

D.  The  gateways  to  the  West  and  the  four  eras  of  travel. 

E.  The  settlement  of  the  Middle  West. 

i.    The  settlement  of  the  region  south  of  the  Ohio. 


246        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

2.  The  settlement  of  the  region  north  of  the  Ohio. 

3.  The  movement  down  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi. 

4.  The  National  Road  and  its  effect  upon  settlement. 

F.  The  new  states. 

G.  The  life  of  the  people  on  the  frontier. 

IV.    The  events  leading  to  the  War  of  1812  and  the  war  itself. 

A.  Events  leading  to  the  war. 

1.  War  between  England  and  France  and  its  effect  on 

American  commerce. 

2.  Attempts  by  Congress  to  remedy  the  situation. 

a.  The  Embargo  Act  and  its  results. 

b.  The  Non-Intercourse  Act. 

3.  The  impressment  of  American  seamen. 

4.  The  Chesapeake  affair. 

B.  The  War  of  1812. 

1.  The  declaration  of  war. 

2.  The  attitude  of  New  England  :    the  Hartford  Con 

vention. 

3.  American  disasters  on  land. 

4.  The  naval  exploits. 

5.  Jackson's  victory  at  New  Orleans. 

6.  The  Treaty  of  Ghent. 

C.  Political  results  of  the  war. 

V.    The  Spanish-American  republics  and  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 

A.  The  Spanish  colonies  win  their  independence. 

B.  The  Holy  Alliance  formed  :  the  danger  of  this  Alliance  to 

the  United  States. 

C.  The  Monroe  Doctrine. 

Important  names  : 

Presidents:  Washington  (1789-1797),  John  Adams  (1797-1801), 
Jefferson  (1801-1809),  Madison  (1809-1817),  and  Monroe  (1817- 
1825). 

Political  Leaders:   Alexander  Hamilton  and  John  Jay. 

Military  and  Naval  Leaders :  Oliver  Hazard  Perry  and  Andrew 
Jackson. 

Pioneers  and  Explorers:  Daniel  Boone,  Meriwether  Lewis,  Wil 
liam  Clark,  and  Zebulon  Pike. 

European  Leader:   Napoleon  Bonaparte. 
Important  dates  :   1803;   1812;   1823. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THREE  DECADES  OF   DOMESTIC  POLITICS  (1815-1845) 

From  the  opening  of  President  Monroe's  administration 
(1817)  to  the  close  of  President  Tyler's  term  (1845)  every 
section  of  the  country  increased  marvelously  in  wealth  and 
power.  In  the  Northeast  manufactures  went  forward  with 
giant  strides ;  in  the  South  and  Southwest  vast  wildernesses 
were  reduced  to  great  plantations  with  amazing  speed  ;  and 
in  the  West  the  frontier  rolled  onward  in  an  irresistible 
wave,  leaving  behind  a  broad  empire  of  prosperous  farms. 
This  economic  development  made  a  deep  mark  on  politics, 
-  on  the  four  main  issues  which  absorbed  the  attention  of 
the  voters  and  their  leaders  :  (i)  the  protection  of  American 
industries,  (2)  internal  improvements,  (3)  the  sale  of  public 
lands,  and  (4)  the  second  United  States  bank.  Before  the 
close  of  the  period  a  fifth  issue  appeared  in  full  view : 
slavery. 

I.   THE  PROTECTIVE  TARIFF 

The  Key  to  the  Tariff  Issue.  —  In  order  to  understand 
the  first  of  these  issues,  the  tariff,  it  is  necessary  to  review 
briefly  the  history  of  industry  from  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  to  the  War  of  1812.  When  the  Revolution 
broke  out  many  factories  and  foundries  had  already  been 
started  in  the  colonies,  and  as  soon  as  all  relations  with 
England  were  severed  the  Americans  simply  had  to  manu 
facture  for  themselves  or  perish.  Fortunately  they  had  the 

247 


248         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

initiative  and  skill  to  meet  the  situation.  Old  industries  grew 
to  large  proportions  and  new  industries  were  established. 
When  peace  came  it  was  clear  to  far-seeing  men  like 
Hamilton  that  the  Americans  could  manufacture  for  them 
selves  ;  in  other  words,  could  become  industrially  as  well  as 
politically  independent  of  Great  Britain. 

English  Competition  for  American  Markets.  —  Mean 
while  British  merchants  and  manufacturers  were  alert. 
Having  been  unable  for  a  period  of  seven  years  to  export 
their  wares  to  the  New  World,  they  found  themselves 
overstocked  with  woolens,  cotton  cloth,  and  hardware. 
They  were  so  anxious  to  sell  this  surplus  that,  when  peace 
was  established  in  1783,  they  offered  it  to  the  Americans 
at  25  per  cent  below  the  prices  they  asked  in  London. 
They  sought  in  this  way  not  only  to  dispose  of  their  sur 
plus,  but  to  win  back  the  American  trade  the  war  had  cost 
them.  They  were  succeeding,  for  in  the  year  following  the 
Peace  of  1783,  $18,397,335  worth  of  goods  was  imported  into 
the  United  States,  and  only  $3,746,725  worth  exported. 

The  Demand  for  Protection  of  American  Industries.  — 
American  manufacturers  accordingly  asked  the  govern 
ment  to  protect  them  at  once  against  being  undersold  by 
the  foreign  manufacturers  who  were  dumping  cheap 
goods  into  the  United  States.  The  response  came  quickly. 
The  very  first  Congress  of  the  United  States  under  the 
Constitution  passed  a  law  putting  low  duties  on  certain  im 
ported  articles  which  competed  with  goods  made  in  this 
country. 

Effect  of  the  War  of  1812  on  American  Manufacturing.  - 
The  War  of  1812  had  about  the  same  effect  on  trade  as 
the  Revolutionary  War.  It  cut  off  goods  from  England 
again,  although  some  were  smuggled  into  the  United  States 
in  spite  of  the  watchfulness  of  the  government.  It  forced 
Americans  to  manufacture  more  for  themselves  and  got 


THREE  DECADES  OF  DOMESTIC  POLITICS          249 

them  into  the  habit  of  buying  all  kinds  of  American-made 
goods.  The  iron  foundries  and  textile  mills  were  especially 
busy.  Hundreds  of  business  men  invested  money  in  these 
concerns,  and  thousands  of  workingmen  and  women  and 
children  were  drawn  from  the  farms  or  from  Europe  into  the 
towns  where  the  mills  were  located. 

As  the  London  Times  said  of  the  Americans :  "  Their 
first  war  with  England  made  them  independent;  their 
second  made  them  formidable." 

England  Again  ''  Dumps "  Goods  on  the  American 
Market.  — At  the  close  of  the  War  of  1812  the  same  thing 
happened  that  had  occurred  at  the  close  of  the  Revolution 
ary  War.  The  English  merchants  had  on  hand  surplus 
stocks  of  goods  which  they  threw  into  the  American 
market  at  a  low  price. 

The  amount  of  importations  from  England  in  1816  rose 
higher  than  ever.  American  mills  closed  down  and  their 
managers  were  ruined.  The  price  of  wool  fell  in  the  home 
market,  the  surplus  wool  clip  was  sent  to  England,  and 
many  of  the  costly  Merino  sheep  that  had  been  imported 
from  Spain  were  killed  for  mutton  and  talbw.  Iron  manu 
facturers  of  the  seaboard  put  out  their  fires.  All  but  five 
of  the  forty  plants  of  Morris  County,  New  Jersey,  were 
prostrated ;  the  works  were  sold  at  auction  and  the  em 
ployees  scattered.  The  bagging  industry  of  Lexington, 
Kentucky,  was  wrecked  by  the  flood  of  cotton  bagging 
which  was  brought  in  at  a  price  far  below  the  cost  of 
production. 

The  Tariff  of  1816.  —  Naturally  a  cry  went  up  again  that  the 
government  should  raise  the  tariff  rates  and  protect  Ameri 
can  industries  against  the  cheap  goods  of  Europe.  At  this 
time  the  manufacturers  of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and 
Pennsylvania  were  joined  (i)  by  the  farmers  of  Ohio, 
Kentucky,  and  Tennessee,  whose  wool,  hemp,  and  flax 


250        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

brought  better  prices  in  a  protected  American  market  than 
in  England,  and  (2)  by  the  sugar  planters  of  Louisiana,  who 
could  not  compete  with  those  of  Cuba  and  Jamaica. 

In  New  England  sentiment  about  the  tariff  was  divided. 
The  mill  owners  demanded  protection  for  industries ;  but 
the  shipowners  were  not  in  favor  of  it,  because  they  wanted  a 
brisk  trade  with  England  which  would  employ  their  ships 
at  sea.  They  were  afraid  that  building  up  home  industries 
would  reduce  the  ocean  freight.  The  demand  for  protec 
tion  was  so  strong,  however,  that  in  1816  a  law  was  passed 
raising  the  tariff  to  a  height  which  would  have  shocked  the 
members  of  the  Congress  that  passed  the  first  law  of  1789. 

In  the  early  days  the  farmers  and  planters  generally  had 
regarded  the  protective  tariff  as  a  device  for  the  sole  benefit 
of  manufacturers.  Now  some  of  them  looked  upon  it  as  a 
means  for  developing  a  "  home  market  "  for  agricultural 
produce  to  take  the  place,  in  part  at  least,  of  the  European 
markets  which  were  likely  to  be  shut  off  at  any  time  by 
war. 

An  Era  of  Speculation  Ends  in  Financial  Panic.  —  Be 
tween  1816  and  1819  there  was  an  era  of  feverish  business 
enterprise-  "  frenzied  finance."  Business  men  borrowed 
large  sums  of  banks  to  embark  on  fanciful  schemes. 
Manufacturers,  encouraged  by  the  protective  tariff,  en 
larged  their  plants  and  doubled  their  output.  Companies 
bought  up  land  in  lots  of  thousands  of  acres,  and  borrowed 
money  on  their  property  in  order  to  buy  more  tracts. 
Farmers  mortgaged  their  lands  to  make  improvements. 
Large  sums  were  sunk  in  canals  and  post  roads  that  could 
not  pay  dividends. 

A  dreadful  panic  was  the  result  of  this  craze.  Thousands 
of  men  lost  all  they  had,  and  the  jails  were  full  of  people 
who  could  not  pay  their  debts.  Banks  issued  paper  money 
i>n  large  quantities,  and  there  were  so  many  kinds  of  money 


THREE   DECADES  OF   DOMESTIC   POLITICS          251 

in  circulation  that  merchants  would  have  to  say  to  cus 
tomers  when  asked  the  price  of  anything :  '  *  What  kind  of 
money  have  you  ?  ' 


II.   POLITICAL  LEADERSHIP  STILL  CENTERED  IN  THE 

EAST 

The  Administrations  of  James  Monroe  and  John  Quincy 
Adams. — Although  the  panic  was  serious,  the  country  re 
covered  and  in  a  few  years  prosperity  set  in  again.  The  in 
dustries  of  New  England  and  the  middle  states  flourished 
so  vigorously  that  the  rapid  growth  of  the  West  did  not 
overcome  for  a  time  the  balance  of  power  held  on  the  sea 
board. 

From  1801  to  1829  there  were  four  Presidents -- Jeffer 
son,  Madison,  Monroe,  and  Adams.  All  of  them  were 
eastern  men  who  had  been  brought  up  in  cultivated 
families,  and  had  had  the  advantages  which  come  from 
the  possession  of  wealth.  None  of  them  had  ever  been 
compelled  to  work  with  his  hands.  They  were  all  known 
as  Republicans,  and  expressed  their  sympathy  with  "  the 
people"  ;  but  they  were  not  "  sons  of  the  soil  "  acquainted 
through  first-hand  knowledge  with  the  hardships  and  labors 
of  the  farmers. 

James  Monroe,  President  (1817-1825) :  the  "  Era  of  Good 
Feeling."  -The  southern  and  western  voters  and  politicians 
were  not  yet  well  enough  organized  seriously  to  dispute 
eastern  leadership.  From  1816  to  1824,  they  put  forth  no 
candidates  for  President.  The  Federalist  party  disap 
peared  from  national  politics  entirely  after  1816,  and 
the  next  few  years  were  called  "  The  Era  of  Good  Feel- 
ing." 

When  Monroe  was  chosen  President  in  1816,  there  was 
practically  no  opposition  to  him,  and  he  was  almost  unani- 


252        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

mously  reflected  four  years  later.  During  his  adminis 
tration  of  eight  years  there  was  only  one  political  event 
which  threatened  to  divide  the  country.  That  was  the 
contest  over  slavery  which  resulted  in  the  Missouri  Com 
promise  (see  page  370). 

The  strong  action  of  President  Monroe  in  getting  pos 
session  of  Florida  by  seizure  and  by  purchase  in  1819  was 
generally  approved  (see  page  206).  His  famous  message  of 

1823  which  gave  to  the  world  the 
"  Monroe  Doctrine "  (see  page 
242)  was  heartily  applauded  and 
greatly  increased  his  popularity 
throughout  the  country. 

The  Campaign  of  1824..  John 
Quincy  Adams  President.  —  Al 
though  no  division  into  parties  had 
occurred  in  Monroe's  administra 
tions,  there  was  a  sharp  conflict 
among  four  distinguished  candi 
dates  for  the  presidency  in  1824, 

and  the  voice  of  the  Southwest  was  heard  in  the  cam 
paign.  The  East  was  represented  in  the  strife  by  John 
Quincy  Adams,  of  Massachusetts,  son  of  John  Adams,  the 
second  President  of  the  United  States.  Virginia,  which  had 
supplied  three  Presidents  in  succession,  had  no  prominent 
candidate  this  time,  but  the  South  had  three  men : 
W.  H.  Crawford  of  Georgia,  Henry  Clay  of  Kentucky, 
and  Andrew  Jackson  of  Tennessee.  The  contest  was  so 
close  that  no  one  received  a  majority,  but  Jackson  stood 
first. 

As  a  result  of  the  division  of  the  votes,  the  choice  of 
President,  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  Constitution, 
was  thrown  into  the  House  of  Representatives ;  and,  .by  a 
good  deal  of  skillful  maneuvering,  Adams  was  elected, 


THREE  DECADES  OF  DOMESTIC  POLITICS         253 

This  deeply  angered  Jackson's  supporters,  who  thought 
that  his  popular  vote  entitled  him  to  the  office.  They  were 
still  more  angry  when  Adams  appointed  Clay  to  the 
office  of  Secretary  of  State.  They  at  once  declared  that 
there  had  been  a  "  deal "  by  which  Clay  helped  to  elect 
Adams  President  in  return  for  the  promise  of  an  office. 

The  "  Tariff  of  Abominations ."  -  During  his  adminis 
tration  of  four  years,  Adams  was  unable  to  overcome  the 
popular  hostility  aroused  by  the  way  in  which  he  had 
been  chosen.  Like  his  illustrious  father,  he  was  a  stern 
and  reserved  man,  not  much  given  to  seeking  popularity; 
and  like  his  father  also,  he  was  unable  to  secure  a  reelection 
at  the  end  of  his  term.  His  troubles  were  notably  increased 
by  the  passage  of  the  Tariff  Bill  of  1828,  which  became 
known  as  the  "  Tariff  of  Abominations  "  because  it  placed 
the  tariff  on  manufactured  goods  at  a  higher  point  than  ever 
before.  The  southern  states  were  greatly  incensed  over 
it,  and  their  leaders  denounced  Adams  as  betraying  the 
country  for  the  benefit  of  the  New  England  manufacturers. 
The  division  in  the  country  was  so  marked  that  the  "  Era 
of  Good  Feeling  "  came  to  an  end. 

Opposition  to  the  Tariff  in  the  South.  -  -  The  tariff  law  of 
1828  was  criticized  by  the  southern  states  as  "sectional 
legislation  "  for  the  benefit  of  the  North.  Georgia,  South 
Carolina,  Alabama,  Virginia,  and  North  Carolina  declared 
it  to  be  a  violation  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
and  a  convention  was  held  in  Augusta  to  protest  against 
every  form  of  "  protection."  Northern  manufacturers,  in 
fighting  for  the  tariff,  were  developing  the  industrial  life 
in  that  section.  The  South,  on  the  other  hand,  was  wholly 
agricultural.  Its  prosperity  depended  upon  the  sale  of  its 
cotton,  especially  in  England,  whose  spinning  mills  and 
looms  were  the  wonder  of  mankind.  Manufacturing 
nothing,  and  having  to  buy  nearly  everything,  the  south- 


254        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


erners  held  that  they  should  be  allowed  to  make  their 
purchases  freely  in  England,  where  they  sold  most  of  their 
produce.  They  claimed  also  that  the  tariff  raised  the  price 
of  manufactures,  and  that  the  farmers,  as  buyers  of.  such 
goods,  had  to  pay  the  difference  —  in  other  words,  pay 
tribute  to  American  capitalists  who  owned  the  mills. 
Southern  statesmen  like  Calhoun,  who  had  voted  for  the 
tariff  of  1816,  frankly  abandoned  the  principle  of  protection 
and  began  to  advocate  "  free  trade"  with  all  the  world. 
The  conflict  took  the  form,  in  the  main,  of  a  struggle 
between  southern  planters  and  northern  manufacturers. 
The  farmers  of  the  West  held  the  balance  of  power. 

III.     JACKSONIAN  DEMOCRACY.     POWER  OF  THE  EAST 
CONTESTED 

Jackson    Elected    President    (1828).  —  With    the    South 
thoroughly  dissatisfied  about  the  tariff,  and  the  West  divided 

over  the  matter, 
Adams  was  defeated 
in  the  election  of 
1828  by  his  formi 
dable  opponent,  An 
drew  Jackson,  al 
though  the  contest 
was  much  closer 
than  the  friends  of 
the  latter  had  ex 
pected. 

Jackson  was  truly 
"  a  man  of  the 
people."  He  was 
born  in  the  upland 
regions  of  South  Carolina  in  1767.  His  parents  were  poor 
farmers,  and  he  was  brought  up  in  the  hard  school  of 


HUZZA 

FOR 

Gen.  Jackson! 
DOWN 

WITH  THE 

YANKEES! 


Much  reduced 

POSTER  USED  IN  THE  PRESIDENTIAL  CAMPAIGN 
OF  1828 


THREE  DECADES  OF  DOMESTIC  POLITICS         255 

adversity.  In  early  life  he  went  over  into  the  frontiers 
of  Tennessee,  where  he  was  known  as  a  brave  man,  and  a 
quarrelsome  one.  He  was  a  courageous  army  officer  and 
endeared  himself  to  his  men  by  sharing  all  the  hardships 
of  campaigns  with  them,  sleeping 
on  the  ground,  and  eating  parched 
corn  when  nothing  better  could  be 
had  for  the  common  soldiers.  He 
was  so  vigorous  in  body  that  he 
was  called  "Old  Hickory." 

When  he  was  elected,  therefore, 
in  1828,  the  common  people  felt 
that  they  had  a  true  representa 
tive  in  the  White  House,  and 

thousands   journeyed    hundreds  of 

.,  ...  i        A  ANDREW  JACKSON 

miles  to  see  him  inaugurated.  Ac 
cording  to  Daniel  Webster,  the  great  crowds  at  the  White 
House  "  upset  the  bowls  of  punch,  broke  the  glasses,  and 
stood  with  their  muddy  boots  on  the  satin-covered  chairs 
to  see  the  people's  President/'  His  followers  thought  that 
a  great  revolution  had  come;  so  they  began  to  drop  the 
old  name  "  Republican  "  and  to  call  themselves  "  Demo 
crats  "  -to  show  that  they  were  .friends  of  "  the  people." 

"To  the  Victors  Belong  the  Spoils."  —  President  Jackson 
expelled  from  office  most  of  the  federal  employees,  to  make 
room  for  those  who  had  supported  him  in  the  race  for 
President.  This  was  a  new  custom.  Other  Presidents  had 
discharged  very  few  officers  for  holding  different  political 
opinions  ;  but  they  had  usually  been  careful,  when  vacancies 
occurred,  to  appoint  men  who  were  known  to  be  in  sym 
pathy  with  their  own  views. 

What  Jackson  did  was  to  make  a  clean  sweep  of  the  old 
employees  in  order  to  find  places  for  a  new  army  of  par 
tisans.  Thus  a  "spoils  system"  on  a  large  scale  was 


256        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

frankly  adopted,  and  everywhere  men  began  to  declare 
that  "  to  the  victors  belong  the  spoils  of  victory."  In 
other  words,  men  came  to  believe  that  those  who  worked 
hard  to  wrin  victories  in  elections  should  have  the  offices  if 
they  won.  The  tone  of  politics  was  lowered  by  introduc 
ing  a  vulgar  scramble  for  government  jobs.  Statesmen 
denounced  it  and  poets  ridiculed  it.  Calhoun  saw  in  it  a 
grave  menace  to  the  nation.  James  Russell  Lowell  poured 
scorn  on  it  by  representing  a  candidate  for  President  of 
the  United  States  promising  a  citizen  a  position  as  light 
house  keeper  in  return  for  his  vote  : 

Ef  you  git  me  inside  the  White  House, 
Your  head  with  ile  I  kin  o'  'nint 
By  gittin'  you  inside  the  Light-house 
Down  to  the  eend  o'  Jaalam  Pint. 

Nevertheless  all  the  political  parties  kept  up  the  practice. 
The  Tariff  Contest  Continues.  —  Jackson  soon  became  in 
volved  in  the  great  controversy  which  arose  between  the 
North  and  the  South  over  the  "Tariff  of  Abominations." 
The  contest  over  the  tariff  now  became  so  serious,  that  it 
threatened  to  break  up  the  Union. 

The  Doctrine  of  Nullification.  —  Calhoun  was  not  content 
with  merely  talking  about  the  effect  of  the  tariff  on  the 
southern  planters.  He  went  further  and  declared  that, 
while  Congress  had  the  power  to  levy  customs  duties  on 
goods  coming  into  the  United  States  in  order  to  raise  rev 
enues,  it  had  no  right  under  that  power  to  be  partial  to 
any  section  of  the  country.  He  also  declared  that  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  was  merely  an  agreement 
among  free  states,  and  that  each  state  had  the  power  to 
prevent  the  enforcement  within  its  borders  of  any  federal 
law  which  it  deemed  to  be  contrary  to  the  Constitution. 
This  principle  was  known  as  the  doctrine  of  "Nullification." 


THREE   DECADES  OF  DOMESTIC   POLITICS 


257 


The  Webster- Hayne  Debate.  -  -The  whole  matter  of 
nullification  was  argued  out  in  the  Senate  in  1830,  in  the 
famous  debate  between  Daniel  Webster,  Senator  from 
Massachusetts,  and  Robert  Hayne,  Senator  from  South 
Carolina.  The  latter  supported,  in  a  powerful  argument, 
Calhoun's  view  that  the  Constitution  was  a  mere  league 
between  sovereign  states,  from  which  each  one  could  with 
draw  at  will. 


CALHOUN,  WEBSTER,  AND  CLAY 


From  a  Brady  photograph 


Webster,  on  the  other  hand,  contended  that  the  Union 
was  not  a  league  of  states,  but  a  solemn  agreement  made 
by  the  people  of  the  United  States.  The  federal  govern 
ment,  he  said,  was  "  made  by  the  people,  arid  answerable 
to  the  people."  He  utterly  rejected  the  idea  that  a  state 
had  the  right  to  declare  null  and  void  an  act  passed  by 
Congress.  '  If  each  state,"  he  asked,  "  has  the  right  to 
final  judgment  on  questions  in  which  she  is 'interested,  is 
not  the  whole  Union  a  rope  of  sand  ?  '  The  theory  that  a 
state  might  be  in  the  Union  and  still  refuse  to  obey  the  laws 
of  the  Union  was  impatiently  brushed  aside.  vHe  ended  his 
great  speech  with  the  words  which  were  destined  to  become 


258         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

immortal  in  American  politics,  -  '  Liberty  and  union, 
now  and  forever,  one  and  inseparable."  His  address  was 
reprinted  by  the  thousand  and  sent  far  and  wide  as.  the 
message  of  American  nationalism,  warning  the  country 
against  nullification  and  secession. 

Jackson  s  Firmness.  —  Southern  statesmen,  however,  were 
not  won  over  by  eloquence.     They  resolved  not  to  endure 


JACKSON'S  FIRMNESS  SHOWN  IN  His  QUELLING  A  MUTINY  AMONG  His 

SOLDIERS 


the  "  Tariff  of  Abominations  " ;  and  they  were  all  the 
more  determined  when,  in  1832,  Congress  passed  another 
irritating  tariff  act.  The  South  Carolinians,  under  the 
leadership  of  Calhoun,  held  a  convention  elected  by  the 
voters,  which  declared  the  tariff  act  null  and  void  and  pro 
hibited  in  that  state  the  collection  of  the  duties.  They 


THREE   DECADES  OF   DOMESTIC   POLITICS         259 

thought   that   President  Jackson,  a   southern   man,   would 
not  interfere  with  them. 

They  had  not  properly  reckoned  with  their  President, 
for  he  replied  that  the  Union  must  be  preserved,  and  that 
if  force  was  necessary  he  would  send  forty  thousand  men 
to  South  Carolina  to  compel  obedience  to  the  law.  To 
a  citizen  of  that  state  he  said  : 

Please  give  my  compliments  to  my  friends  in  your  state  and 
say  to  them  that  if  a  single  drop  of  blood  shall  be  shed  there  in 
opposition  to  the  laws  of  the  United  States  I  will  hang  the  first 
man  I  lay  my  hands  on  engaged  in  such  conduct  upon  the  first 
tree  that  I  can  reach. 

He  kept  his  word,  and  dispatched  soldiers  and  warships  to 
South  Carolina.  He  called  upon  Congress  for  more  power, 
and  secured  the  passage  of  the  "  Force  Bill/'  which  gave 
him  better  means  for  compelling  obedience  to  law. 

The  "  Compromise  Tariff."  Henry  Clay's  Leadership. 
-  However,  a  great  many  people  who  were  not  in  favor  of 
nullification  sympathized  with  the  people  of  South  Caro 
lina  in  resisting  the  tariff,  and  in  the  end  a  compromise  was 
reached  which  the  southern  leaders  called  "  a  great 
victory."  Jackson  was  supported  in  preserving  the  Union 
and  enforcing  the  law;  but  the  tariff*  act  of  1832  was  re 
pealed,  and  another  law,  known  as  the  . "  Compromise 
Tariff,"  was  substituted  for  it.  Under  this  new  law  the 
duties  on  goods  were  to  be  reduced  until  by  1842  they  were 
to  be  at  the  point  fixed  by  the  law  of  1816.  In  the  arrange 
ment  of  this  compromise  between  the  North  and  the  South, 
Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  took  a  prominent  part. 

Internal  Improvements  and  Public  Lands.  —  The  country 
could  now  turn  with  relief  to  other  issues.  Strange  as  it 
may  seem,  the  question  of  selling  the  lands  owned  by  the 
federal  government  in  the  West,  and  the  question  of  spend- 


260        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

ing  government  money  on  roads  and  canals,  were  both  con 
nected  with  the  tariff.  The  problem  that  faced  the  poli 
ticians  of  the  East  and  the  South  was  this  : 

If  the  government  sold  the  lands  at  a  high  price  its  revenues 
would  multiply,  and  then  the  demand  of  the  South  for  a  lower 
tariff  would  resound  louder  than  ever.  If  the  lands  were  sold  at 
a  low  price  or  given  away,  workmen  from  the  East  would  rush 
out  in  larger  numbers,  and  the  factory  owners  would  be  in  straits 
for  hands  and  have  to  pay  higher  wages ;  then  they  would  need 
a  still  higher  tariff. 

For  a  time  a  compromise  was  reached,  in  the  form  of  the 
expenditure  of  large  sums  on  canals  and  roads  —  internal 
improvements — to  connect  the  interior  regions  with  the 
seaboard.  This  appeared  to  be  a  patriotic  public  purpose. 
It  also  opened  markets  to  eastern  manufacturers.  Al 
though  the  followers  of  Jefferson  had  at  first  favored  gov 
ernment  action  in  building  the  national  road,,  they  later 
changed  their  opinion.  Both  Madison  and  Monroe  vetoed 
acts  of  Congress  appropriating  money  for  such  enterprises, 
and  Jackson  followed  their  example.  But  the  controversy 
over  the  lands  and  internal  improvements  continued  long 
after  Jackson's  day. 

Jackson  Reflected;  The  United  States  Bank  Controversy. 
-  While  Jackson  was  busy  with  nullification  in  South 
Carolina  he  had  to  face  the  fourth  leading  political  issue  of 
this  period.  In  1791  the  federal  government  had  chartered 
a  United  States  Bank  with  branches  all  over  the  country 
(see  page  184),  and  in  1816  the  Second  United  States  Bank 
on  the  same  plan  had  been  chartered  for  a  period  of  twenty 
years.  Soon  after  its  establishment  it  was  violently  op 
posed,  particularly  by  farmers  and  planters  of  the  West 
and  South.  They  thought  that  it  was  a  "  great  money 
power "  associated  with  the  manufacturers  who  benefited 
from  the  protective  tariff. 


THREE  DECADES  OF  DOMESTIC   POLITICS          261 

Andrew  Jackson  shared  this  view.  Shortly  after  his 
inauguration  in  -1829  he  served  notice  that  he  was  opposed 
to  the  Bank  and  would  not  approve  continuing  it  after  its 
charter  expired  in  1836.  The  friends  of  the  Bank,  under 
the  leadership  of  Henry  Clay,  met  Jackson's  attack  by 
having  Congress  pass  an  act  rechartering  the  Bank.  This 
law  Jackson  promptly  vetoed,  and  in  the  election  of  1832 
Clay,  who  ran  for  President  against  Jackson,  made  an  issue 
out  of  the  question  of  continuing  the  Bank.  He  was  badly 
defeated  by  "  the  Hero  of  New  Orleans." 

The  Bank  Controversy  Continues.  -  -  Jackson  regarded 
his  second  election  as  a  popular  approval  of  his  war  on  the 
Bank.  Its  charter,  however,  did  not  expire  until  1836, 
and  he  decided  to  destroy  it  by  another  method.  It 
had  been  the  practice  of  the  government  to  keep  millions 
of  dollars  on  deposit  in  the  Bank  and  its  branches.  From 
this  fund  the  Bank  derived  large  profits  because*  it  was 
able  to  lend  the  money  at  a  good  rate  of  interest.  In  1833 
Jackson  issued  an  order  that  the  government  should  put 
no  more  money  into  the  Bank,  and  that  the  funds  then  on 
deposit  should  be  drawn  out  as  quickly  as  possible.  As 
the  new  revenues  came  in,  Jackson  provided  that  they  should 
be  placed  in  certain  selected  state  banks  owned  by  his  friends 
and  known  as  "  pet  banks." 

Financial  Prosperity  Ends  in  the  Panic  of  1837. — The  de 
struction  of  the  Bank  was  followed  by  a  great  panic  in  1837. 
Hundreds  of  business  men  failed,  more  than  six  hundred 
banks  were  closed,  and  thousands  of  working  people  were 
again  thrown  out  of  employment.  The  panic  lasted  for 
nearly  five  years. 

IV.   THE  WHIG  PARTY 

Van  Buren  and  Clay.  -  -  When  he  came  to  the  close  of  his 
second  term,  Jackson  was  able  to  secure  the  election  of  his 


262         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


friend,  Martin  Van  Buren,  of  New  York,  as  his  successor, 
after  a  close  contest.  In  1831  Jackson's  opponents  had 
organized  a  new  party  known  as  the  "  National  Republi 
cans,"  or  more  popularly  the  "Whigs/'  after  the  great 
English  political  party  which  had  once  stoutly  resisted  the 
power  of  the  king.  Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  was  a 

brilliant  leader  among  the 
Whigs,  and  seemed  to  be 
destined  to  the  presidency. 
But  it  was  not  to  be.  He 
had  so  many  political  ene 
mies  that  he  never  reached 
the  goal  of  his  ambition. 
His  party,  however,  suc 
ceeded  in  winning  two  vic 
tories —  in  1840  and  in  1848. 
Harrison  and  the  Victory 
of  1840.  —  So  strong  was 
A  LOG  CABIN,  A  SYMBOL  OF  THE  the  opposition  to  Clay  that 

in  1840  the  Whigs  even  re- 

fused  to  nominate  him  for  President.  They  chose  as  their 
candidate  General  William  Henry  Harrison,  of  Indiana, 
who  was  well  known  on  account  of  his  defeat  of  the 
Indians  at  the  battle  of  Tippecanoe  (1811)  and  also  for 
his  part  in  the  War  of  1812.  As  a  western  man,  Harrison 
was  popular  among  the  people  who  loved  Andrew  Jackson, 
while  Van  Buren,  a  candidate  for  reelection,  was  attacked 
as  an  aristocrat  who  used  gold  tableware  in  the  White 
House. 

When  some  Democrat  declared  that  Harrison  was  a  back 
woodsman  whose  sole  wants  were  a  log  cabin  and  a  jug  of 
cider,  the  Whigs  took  up  the  insult.  They  chose  a  log 
cabin  with  a  coonskin  stretched  on  the  outside  and  a  jug  of 
cider  as  their  election  symbol.  Although  they  put  forward 


THREE   DECADES  OF   DOMESTIC   POLITICS          263 

no  platform  showing  what  they  stood  for,  they  were  able 
to  elect  General  Harrison. 

John  Tyler  Succeeds  Harrison.  -  -  The  hero  of  Tippecanoe 
was  not  long  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  victory.  When  the 
Whigs  came  to  power,  they  adopted  the  "  spoils  system  "  in 
troduced  by  Jackson,  and  thousands  of  office-seekers  de 
scended  upon  him.  Within  one  month  Harrison  died  sud 
denly,  worn  out  with  the  troubles  of  his  high  office.  He 
was  succeeded  by  the  Vice  President,  John  Tyler,  of  Vir 
ginia,  a  man  who  was  more  Democrat  than  Whig,  and  had 
been  selected  as  a  candidate  in  order  to  draw  Democratic 
votes  from  the  South. 

Tyler's  Unpopularity.  The  Webster- A shburton  Treaty.  — 
Tyler's  administration  had  few  friends.  He  was  disliked 
by  both  Whigs  and  Democrats  —  by  the  former  because  he 
did  not  approve  the  establishment  of  another  United  States 
Bank,  and  by  the  latter  because  he  moved  so  slowly  in  the 
annexation  of  Texas,  not  yielding  until  the  closing  days  of 
his  administration.  (See  p.  274.) 

During  his  administration  there  were  only  two  events 
of  striking  importance.  In  1842  a  new  tariff  law  was 
passed,  undoing  the  Compromise  Act  which  had  brought 
about  a  truce  between  the  North  and  the  South  in  1833. 
In  that  same  year  there  was  signed  by  Daniel  Webster,  as 
Secretary  of  State,  and  Lord  Ashburton,  representing  Great 
Britain,  a  treaty  between  the  two  countries  which  settled 
a  long-standing  dispute  over  the  northern  boundaries  of 
Maine.  The  United  States  secured  a  small  piece  of  Canada 
north  of  Vermont  and  New  York,  in  exchange  for  a  section 
of  Maine  to  the  extreme  northeast. 

Tyler's  administration  was  unfortunate  for  the  Whig 
party.  In  the  contest  of  1844  the  Democrats  succeeded  in 
electing  their  candidate,  James  K.  Polk,  of  Tennessee.  By 
this  time  the  country  was  coming  face  to  face  with 


264        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

new  issues  :    the  annexation  of  Texas   and  the  growth  of 
slavery. 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.  In  what  way  had  the  Revolution  stimulated  American 
manufacturing  industries  ?  What  was  the  effect  of  peace  upon 
these  industries?  2.  Compare  the  effect  of  the  War  of  1812 
upon  industry  with  the  effect  of  the  Revolution.  Why  and  in 
what  ways  did  the  English  attempt  to  regain  the  American 
markets  after  the  war?  3.  What  is  meant  by  a  protective 
tariff?  How  was  the  country  divided  upon  this  issue  and  what 
were  the  reasons  for  this  division  ? 

IT.  i.  Compare  the  political  leaders  of  the  West  with  those 
of  the  East  during  the  first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
2.  What  is  meant  by  the  "Era  of  Good  Feeling"?  3.  State 
the  important  provisions  of  the  Missouri  Compromise.  Point 
out  on  a  map  the  region  affected  (see  page  370).  4.  How 
did  John  Quincy  Adams  come  to.  be  President  of  the  United 
States  ?  Find  and  read  the  provision  of  the  Constitution  which 
made  this  election  possible.  5.  Why  was  the  tariff  of  1828 
known  as  the  "Tariff  of  Abominations"? 

III.  I.    Contrast  Andrew  Jackson  with  the  Presidents  before 
his  time.     In  what   ways   was  he  typical   of  the   western    life  ? 
2.    What   is  meant    by  the    "spoils  system"  in  politics?     How 
have  the  evils  of  the  spoils  system  been  lessened  in  the  present 
organization  of  the  federal  government  ?     What  appointive  officers 
are  now  generally  removed  when  a  new  political  party  comes  into 
power?       3.    What    is    meant    by    "nullification"?      What   did 
those  who  defended  the  rights  of  the  states  to  nullify  acts  of  the 
Congress  think    of   the    union  of   the    states  ?        4.    What    was 
Jackson's   attitude    toward    those   who  threatened   nullification  ? 
5.    Why  did  the  people  of  the  South  and  West  generally  oppose 
the  United  States  Bank  ?     What  people   supported  the  policy  of 
the  government  in  maintaining  the  Bank  and  why  ? 

IV.  I.    What  important  changes  were  made  in  the  names  of 
the  national  political  parties   during  Jackson's   administration  ? 
Which  of  the  two  great  parties  of  to-day  more  closely  resembles 
the  party  of  Andrew  Jackson  ?     To  what  party  did  Clay  belong  ? 


THREE   DECADES   OF   DOMESTIC   POLITICS          265 

2.    Name   the  important   provisions    of  the   Webster-Ashburton 
Treaty. 

Review:  Find  in  table  of  Presidents  (Appendix,  page  645)  the 
names,  dates,  and  length  of  service,  and  political  parties  of  the 
Presidents  from  Madison  to  Polk.  Who,  in  your  opinion,  was  the 
greatest  of  these  Presidents  and  why  ?  Whom  would  you  rank 
second  and  why  ? 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Be  ready  to  give  the  class  an  interesting  talk  about  the  life 
and  work  of  Andrew  Jackson. 

See  Southworth's  "Builders  of  Our  Country,"  Book  II,  pp. 
149-157;  Roosevelt  and  Lodge's  "Hero  Tales  from  American 
History"  (description  of  the  Battle  of  New  Orleans),  pp.  139- 
147;  Sparks's  "The  Men  Who  Made  the  Nation,"  ch.  ix. 

2.  The  presidential  campaign  of  1840  has  been  described  as  the 
most  remarkable  in  the  history  of  the  country  up  to  that    time. 
Find  some  of  the  reasons. 

See  Elson's  "Side-Lights  on  American  History,"  vol.  i,  ch.  xii. 

3.  Tell  the  story  of  the  Webster-Hayne  Debate. 

See  Sparks's  "The  Men  Who  Made  the  Nation,"  ch.  x; 
Brooks's  "  Stories  of  the  Old  Bay  State,"  pp.  192-199. 


CHAPTER  XV 

WESTWARD  TO  THE   PACIFIC 

The  election  of  Presidents,  the  alarms  of  statesmen,  the 
fortunes  of  political  parties  did  not  stay  or  turn  the  tide  of 
migration  flowing  westward.  While  Webster  and  Hayne 
debated,  while  Calhoun  and  Clay  disputed  over  the  rights 
of  states  and  the  schedules  of  tariff  bills  as  if  the  fate  of 
America  hung  in  the  balance,  pioneers  on  the  advancing 
frontier  were  laying  the  foundations  of  a  new  western 
empire. 

What  strength  !  what  strife  !  what  rude  unrest ! 

What  shocks!  What  half-shaped  armies  met! 

A  mighty  nation  moving  west, 

With  all  its  steel  sinews  set 

Against  the  living  forest.     Hear 

The  shouts,  the  shots  of  pioneer, 

The  rended  forests,  rolling  wheels, 

As  if  some  half-checked  army  reels, 

Recoils,  redoubles,  comes  again, 

Loud  sounding  like  a  hurricane.  —  Joaquin  Miller. 


Long  before  Indiana  and  Illinois  were  crowded,  or  Michi 
gan  and  Wisconsin  settled,  the  restless  current  began  to 
press  on.  Vagrant  spirits  and  home  seekers  alike  turned  to 
the  Far  West  where  life  was  full  of  adventure  and  untold 
acres  awaited  the  plow. 

266 


WESTWARD  TO  THE   PACIFIC  267 


I.   MISSOURI,  ARKANSAS,  AND  IOWA;  AMERICAN  SETTLE 
MENTS  IN  TEXAS 

Missouri  Represented  Both  Southern  and  Northern 
Elements.  —  Missouri,  with  its  rich  lands  and  mild  winters, 
attracted  pioneers  mainly  from  the  South  —  from  Virginia, 
the  Carolinas,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee.  To  these  settlers 
were  added  a  goodly  number  from  the  North  who  came 
down  the  Mississippi  in  flatboats.  Thus  two  streams  of 
immigration  flowed  together. 

The  Admission  of  Missouri  (1821).  — Naturally  the  south 
ern  immigrants  into  Missouri,  who  owned  slaves,  took  them 
along  into  the  new  country.  In  1820,  ten  thousand  of  the 
sixty  thousand  inhabitants  were  bondmen,  among  whom 
were  many  skilled  artisans,  smiths,  carpenters,  and  masons 
as  well  as  field  hands.  When  the  time  came  to  make  a 
state  out  of  the  territory,  a  contest  arose  between  the  slave 
owners  and  the  friends  of  freedom  ;  but  Missouri  was  al 
lowed  to  come  into  the  Union  with  slavery  as  a  result  of  a 
compromise  (see  page  370).  Thus  assured,  planters  came  in 
larger  numbers  than  ever,  and  the  farming  land  was  quickly 
taken  up.  The  old  French  post,  St.  Louis,  grew  into  a 
thriving  commercial  city,  enriched  by  the  fur  trade  of  the 
West  and  the  steamboat  traffic  on  the  Mississippi. 

Arkansas  :  a  New  Cotton  State.  —  Below  Missouri  was  the 
territory  of  Arkansas,  where  rich  valleys  suitable  for  cot 
ton  culture  were  drawing  slave  owners  in  search  of  more 
plantations.  These  newcomers  found  the  country  already 
partly  occupied  by  "  squatters,"  who  had  i:<  just  moved 
in  "  and  taken  possession  of  lands  without  asking  the 
permission  of  any  one  or  taking  the  trouble  to  secure  deeds 
from  the  government.  They  had  gone  across  the  Mississippi 
in  search  of  a  wild  free  life,  and  manv  of  them  lived  and 
dressed  very  much  like  their  neighbors,  the  Cherokee 


268         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

Indians.  The  squatters  and  planters  combined  did  not 
make  a  very  large  population,  but  in  1836  Arkansas  was 
admitted  as  a  slave  state  to  balance  the  free  state  of 
Michigan. 

Iowa  Settled  from  the  East.  --To  the  north  of  Missouri 
lay  Iowa,  where  the  tall  grass  on  the  prairies  waved  like  the 
sea  and  the  forests  were  filled  with  the  blossoms  of  dogwood 
and  wild  rose.  To  this  beautiful  country  came  farmers 
and  their  families,  mainly  from  New  England,  New  York, 
and  Ohio,  who  preferred  to  settle  where  the  climate  and 
the  crops  were  about  the  same  as  those  to  which  they  were 
accustomed  in  the  "  old  states,  back  home."  Free  men  also 
preferred  soil  where  there  was  no  slave  labor.  Farms  spread 
far  and  wide.  By  1836  three  trading  towns,  Dubuque,  Dav 
enport,  and  Burlington,  had  been  founded  on  the  Mississippi ; 
and  ten  years  later  the  state  was  admitted  to  the  Union. 
The  advancement  of  learning  was  cherished  as  in  the  old 
homes,  for  within  a  few  years  numerous  academies  and  five 
colleges  had  been  founded. 

Immigration  Spreads  to  the  Far  West. --With  the  ad 
mission  of  Iowa  in  1846,  a  tier  of  states  had  been  formed 
from  Louisiana  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  to  Minnesota, 
which  was  not  taken  into  the  Union  until  1858,  ten  years  after 
Wisconsin  was  admitted.  Settlers  began  to  move  along  the 
great  reaches  of  the  Missouri  River ;  then  over  into  the  Kan 
sas  and  Nebraska  region.  To  the  southward,  the  hustling 
pioneers  and  planters  of  Louisiana  found  themselves  blocked 
by  the  borders  of  Texas,  a  part  of  Mexico.  The  lands  across 
the  boundary  were  fertile,  adapted  to  slave  labor,  and  mostly 
unoccupied  ;  but  they  belonged  to  a  foreign  government. 

Texas  Still  Foreign  Soil. — At  the  time  of  the  purchase 
in  1803,  the  boundaries  of  Louisiana  were  not  well  defined, 
and  the  people  of  that  territory  contended  that  they v  lay 
west  and  south  of  the  points  claimed  by  Spain.  However, 


WESTWARD  TO  THE   PACIFIC 


269 


the  disputed  boundary  question  was  settled  in  1819,  when 
Florida  was  purchased,  and  the  border  line  was  so  fixed  as 
to  surrender  a  large  area  claimed  by  Americans  in  the 
western  country.  The  people  of  the  Southwest  were  very 
angry  about  this.  They  declared  that  a  part  of  their  herit 
age  had  been  given  away  to  Mexicans  and  should  be  won 
back  as  soon  as  possible. 


_^_  .       ~ '•*-:•:'•>&,'*   ~^-'*'r     J>-       '       /       'y'-tf          *"/.'        f 

Frow  a  ^>nw£  o/  //re  /z'wes 

THE  OLD  FRENCH  POST,  ST.  Louis,  A  THRIVING  COMMERCIAL  CITY 

American  Immigration  into  Texas.  Moses  Austin.  — 
Fortune  favored  them.  In  1810  the  Mexicans  had  revolted 
against  Spain,  and,  after  years  of  fighting  and  disorder, 
they  secured  their  independence.  The  United  States  of 
Mexico,  a  weak  union,  was  then  formed,  including  the 
coveted  Texas.  Very  soon  Americans  began  to  cross  over 
the  line  and  to  settle  along  the  road  from  the  border  to 
San  Antonio. 


270         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

Mexico  did  not  at  first  resent  this  immigration.  On  the 
contrary,  the  Mexican  government  invited  settlers  to  come 
and  take  up  the  unoccupied  lands.  It  made  large  grants 
of  territory  to  contractors  who  agreed  to  bring  a  given 
number  of  families  into  Texas.  Among  these  contractors 
was  Moses  Austin,  from  Connecticut,  who  had  been  engaged 
in  lead  mining  in  the  West.  He  secured  in  1820  permission 
to  settle  three  hundred  Americans  near  Bexar.  The  con 
tract  was  carried  out  by  his  son,  and  the  present  town  of 
Austin  was  named  after  him. 

In  ten  years  twenty  thousand  Americans  had  gone  over 
the  border.  The  Mexicans  were  frightened,  especially  when 
the  American  government  made  attempts  to  buy  Texas. 

Trouble  between  Americans  and  Mexicans  in  Texas.  — 
In  a  little  while  quarrels  began  to  break  out  between  the 
newcomers  and  the  natives  in  Texas.  The  Mexicans,  who 
were  Catholics,  complained  that  the  American  Protestants 
did  not  show  the  proper  respect  for  their  religion,  and  the 
Americans  complained  that  they  had  no  share  in  the  gov 
ernment.  Fearing  that  the  latter  might  seize  Texas,  Mexico 
stopped  the  colonization  schemes,  canceled  most  of  the  land 
grants,  put  a  tariff"  on  American  farming  implements,  and 
abolished  slavery. 

Then  the  Americans  already  in  Texas,  the  southern 
planters  who  wanted  to  move  over  into  that  rich  territory 
with  their  slaves,  and  the  pioneers  of  the  Southwest  who 
liked  adventure  for  its  own  sake,  determined  to  get  posses 
sion  of  Texas  at  all  costs.  Many  warlike  spirits  went  over 
to  help.  Davy  Crockett,  a  noted  frontiersman,  a  crack  shot, 
and  a  good  story  teller,  from  Tennessee,  was  one  of  them. 
James  Bowie,  of  Georgia,  who  was  famous  as  the  inventor 
of  the  Bowie  knife,  a  peculiar  kind  of  weapon,  likewise  joined 
in  the  American  rush  to  Texas.  Restless  men  of  this  type 
could  not  endure  the  thought  of  living  under  the  Mexican 


WESTWARD  TO  THE   PACIFIC  271 

government,  and  they  soon  made  it  known  that  they  would 
be  their  own  masters. 


II.   TEXAS  A  REPUBLIC;  ITS  ADMISSION  TO  THE  UNION; 
THE  RESULTING  WAR  WITH  MEXICO 

Texas    Declares   Its   Independence   from    Mexico.      The 

Alamo.  Sam  Houston  Defeats  Santa  Ana.  —  Although  the 
Americans  were  only  about  one  fourth  of  the  Texas  popu 
lation,  they  revolted  against  the  Mexican  government  and 
proclaimed  their  independence  at  a  convention  held  in  1836. 
The  declaration  of  independence  was  signed  by  fifty-six 
men  :  three  Mexicans,  five  Americans  from  free  states,  and 
forty-eight  from  slave  states.  Santa  Ana,  the  President 
of  Mexico,  hearing  of  this  action,  marched  northward  to 
punish  the  "rebels,"  and  at  the  Alamo,  an  old  mission  on 
the  present  site  of  San  Antonio,  he  absolutely  destroyed 
the  garrison  of  soldiers. 

The  defense  of  this  fort  is  one  of  the  most  heroic  events 
in  American  military  history,  for  the  men  fought  with  des 
perate  bravery  to  the  very  last.  Santa  Ana  demanded  that 
the  Texans  surrender,  on  pain  of  being  executed  if  they  re 
sisted.  The  commander  of  the  Alamo  answered  this  with  a 
cannon  shot,  and  true  to  his  threat,  the  Mexican  general 
kept  up  the  fight  until  every  member  of  the  garrison  was 
killed,  even  the  sick  in  the  hospital. 

A  few  weeks  later,  General  Sam  Houston,  who  had  served 
in  the  War  of  1812  and  had  been  governor  of  Tennessee,  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  Texas  forces.  He  completely  de 
feated  Santa  Ana  at  the  San  Jacinto  River  in  April,  1836, 
taking  even  the  Mexican  general  prisoner. 

President  Jackson  and  the  Texan  Republic. — The  power  of 
Mexico  being  broken,  the  Texans  established  a  republic  with 
General  Houston  at  the  head.  They  then  turned  to  the 


272        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

President  of  the  United  States,  Andrew  Jackson,  thinking 
that  he  would  make  a  treaty  with  them  with  the  consent  of 
the  Senate,  and  admit  the  republic,  as  a  state,  to  the  Union. 
But  Jackson  hesitated  about  annexation  and  went  out  of 
office  in  March,  1837,  leaving  Texas  still  uncertain  as  to 
her  future. 

Controversy  over  the  Admission  of  Texas.  -  -  There  was  a 
strong  reason  for  urging  delay.     The  people  of  the  United 


GENERAL  SAM  HOUSTON  AND  His  TEXAS  RANGERS 

States  were  divided  as  to  the  wisdom  and  justice  of  the 
course  which  Americans  had  pursued. 

William  Lloyd  Garrison,  of  Massachusetts,  who  was  then 
denouncing  slavery  and  demanding  its  complete  abolition, 
declared  that  the  conduct  of  his  countrymen  in  Texas  had 
been  outrageous.  He  urged  the  northern  states  to  sepa 
rate  from  the  South  and  form  a  free  country  if  Texas  was 
brought  into  the  Union. 

John  Quincy  Adams,  who  had  been  President  from  1825 
to  1829,  likewise  opposed  annexation,  holding  that  the 


WESTWARD  TO  THE    PACIFIC 


273 


Texas  Revolution  was  a  slave  owners'  plot  to  seize  the  terri 
tory  of  a  friendly  country.  Annexation,  he  said,  was  proof 
that  the  United  States,  like  countries  of  Europe,  was  ready 
to  follow  a  policy  of  con 
quest  and  imperialism. 

On  the  other  hand, 
John  C.  Calhoun,  the 
great  statesman  of 
South  Carolina,  argued 
that  the  admission  of 
Texas  was  absolutely 
necessary  to  the  pres 
ervation  of  the  Union. 
It  would  give,  he  said, 
the  slaveholding  states 
a  "balance  of  power'3 
in  the  country  as  against 
the  states  of  the  North, 
which  were  rapidly 
growing  in  wealth  and 
population. 

Texas  Finally  Admit 
ted  to  the  Union  (1845).  --The  government  of  the  United 
States  for  a  long  time  took  no  open  steps  toward  annexa 
tion.  Jackson's  successor,  President  Van  Buren,  was  a 
northern  man  and  really  opposed  to  slavery.  During  his 
administration,  from  1837  to  1841,  the  admission  of  Texas 
was  out  of  the  question.  It  is  not  probable  that  the  Whig 
President,  General  William  Henry  Harrison,  would  have 
brought  Texas  into  the  Union,  had  he  lived  to  serve  out  his 
term  (p.  263). 

Harrison  died  after  he  had  been  in  office  a  few  weeks, 
and  Tyler,  the  Vice  President,  succeeded  him.  Tyler  was 
from  Virginia ;  he  was  at  heart  a  Democrat ;  and  he  favored 


0     50   100        200         300 


TEXAS  AND  THE  TERRITORY  IN  DISPUTE 


274         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

slavery.  In  1844  he  appointed  to  the  office  of  Secretary  of 
State  John  C.  Calhoun,  who  at  once  made  a  treaty  with 
Texas,  agreeing  to  annex  her  to  the  United  States.  This 
treaty,  however,  did  not  receive  the  required  two-thirds  vote 
of  the  Senate. 

The  advocates  of  annexation  then  discovered  another 
way  out.  They  pushed  through  both  houses  of  Congress  a 
joint  resolution  (which  required  only  a  majority  vote)  ad 
mitting  Texas  to  the  Union  as  a  state.  This  occurred  in 
February,  1845,  just  before  Tyler's  successor,  James  K.  Polk, 
came  into  office.  "The  reannexation  of  Texas"  had  been 
one  of  the  issues  in  the  presidential  election  of  1844,  anc^  tne 
victory  of  Polk,  who  had  openly  favored  it,  was  regarded 
as  an  approval  of  the  plan  by  the  voters  of  the  country. 

War  with  Mexico  (1846). — Almost  immediately  after 
the  annexation  of  Texas,  a  dispute  arose  between  the 
United  States  and  Mexico  over  the  boundary  line.  The 
Texans  claimed  all  of  the  land  south  and  west  down  to  the 
Rio  Grande  River.  The  Mexicans  replied  that  the  right 
boundary  was  the  Nueces  River  and  a  line  running  from 
that  river  in  a  northerly  direction.  President  Polk  accepted 
the  Texan  view  of  the  matter,  and  ordered  General  Zachary 
Taylor  to  the  northern  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande  to  defend 
the  possessions  of  the  United  States.  The  Mexicans  de 
clared  that  this  was  an  invasion  of  their  territory,  and  they 
fired  upon  some  American  soldiers,  killing  and  wounding 
several.  President  Polk  thereupon  proclaimed  that  war 
existed  "by  the  act  of  Mexico  herself,"  and  Congress  voted 
money  to  carry  on  the  armed  conflict  thus  begun. 

The  Three  Campaigns  of  the  War.  -  -  The  war  which  then 
ensued  was  divided  into  three  parts:  (i)  General  Taylor, 
operating  in  northern  Mexico,  defeated  the  Mexicans  at 
Monterey  and  Buena  Vista  and  occupied  the  chief  points 
in  the  Mexican  states  in  that  region.  (2)  In  the  West, 


WESTWARD  TO  THE   PACIFIC 


275 


the  American  naval  commanders,  Sloat  and  Stockton,  aided 
by  the  explorer,  John  C.  Fremont,  seized  California.  The 
new  possession  was  made  secure  by  General  Kearny,  who 
had  gone  overland  from  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kansas,  with  a 


I 
[UNITED 

STATES 

Red 


Wms.  £ng.  Co..  ! 


FIELD  OF  THE  CAMPAIGNS  IN  THE  WAR  WITH  MEXICO 

body  of  soldiers.  (3)  General  Winfield  Scott,  with  a  large 
army,  landed  at  Vera  Cruz  and  fought  his  way  slowly  up 
to  the  gates  of  Mexico  City,  where,  after  some  parleying 
with  the  Mexicans  over  peace,  he  stormed  the  heights  of 
Chapultepec  and  took  the  capital  itself. 

Peace  Declared  (184.8).     Results  of  the  War.  —  Defeated 


276        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

everywhere,  the  Mexicans  were  forced  to  make  a  treaty  of 
peace  on  February  2,  1848.  They  ceded  to  the  victor  Cali 
fornia,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  all  territory  to  the  north 
and  west  of  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  borders  of  the  United 
States,  in  return  for  fifteen  million  dollars  cash  and  the  can- 


!«« 

^'  iKA^BvH'  S:  V  I'Xy^^^S^ifi' 


GENERAL  SCOTT  ENTERING  MEXICO 

celing  of  many  claims  held  by  American  citizens  against  the 
Mexican  government.1  Thus  as  a  result  of  the  war  there 
was  added  to  the  United  States  523,802  square  miles  —  an 
area  greater  than  the  combined  area  of  France  and  Ger 
many  in  Europe.  , 

1  In  1853  the  United  States  purchased  from  Mexico  a  strip  of  territory  along  the 
southern  borders  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  for  $10,000,000.  This  transaction 
was  arranged  by  James  Gadsden,  and  is  known  as  the  "Gadsden  Purchase." 


WESTWARD  TO  THE   PACIFIC  277 

III.    OREGON,  CALIFORNIA,  AND  UTAH 

Oregon.  —  During  the  trouble  with  Mexico  a  controversy 
was  carried  on  with  Great  Britain  over  the  boundary  of 
the  Oregon  country.  That  region  was  claimed  by  the 
United  States  because  of  Gray's  discovery  of  the  Columbia 
River  in  1792  and  on  other  grounds;  but  there  was  much 
uncertainty  as  to  its  limits  on  the  north.  The  United  States 
asserted  that  Oregon  extended  upward  to  the  borders  of  the 
Russian  territory  of  Alaska,  the  parallel  of  54°  40'.  Great 
Britain  utterly  rejected  this  claim,  and  in  1818  the  two 
countries  agreed  to  hold  the  disputed  lands  in  common  for 
ten  years,  leaving  the  settlement  of  the  affair  until  some 
future  date.  At  the  time,  neither  nation  appreciated  the 
importance  of  that  far-off  region. 

Settled  by  New  Englanders.  Marcus  Whitman.  —  It  was 
not  long,  however,  before  citizens  of  the  United  States 
began  to  take  an  interest  in  the  Oregon  country.  The 
famous  exploit  of  Lewis  and  Clark  had  been  described  in 
their  remarkable  journal ;  and  a  popular  edition  of  the  work 
issued  in  1811  had  made  known  to  thousands  of  American 
citizens  the  existence  of  a  country  of  vast  resources,  beyond 
the  arid  plains  and  the  towering  mountains.  In  that  year, 
John  Jacob  Astor's  fur  hunters  had  established  a  post  at 
Astoria  near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River. 

In  1835  Dr.  Marcus  Whitman  was  sent  out  to  Oregon  by 
the  American  Board  of  Missions  to  convert  the  Indians.  He 
soon  saw  how  rich  the  country  was  and  urged  Congress  to  act 
at  once  in  order  to  secure  American  control.  The  following 
year  he  made  a  trip  East,  and  returned  to  Oregon  with  a  little 
company  of  settlers,  including  his  wife.  Six  years  later  he 
made  a  special  trip  East  to  renew  his  urgent  appeal  for  aid. 
This  time  he  took  back  with  him  to  Oregon  a  large  number  of 
settlers,  who  went  into  the  Columbia  Valley  and  built  homes. 


278         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


Dispute  over  the  Boundary.     "Fifty-four  Forty,  or  Fight" 

—  Oregon  was  now  becoming  famous  all  over  the  United 

States.     Missionaries  of  various  denominations  were  active 

in  taking  out  settlers  and  converting  the  Indians.     In  1843, 

it  is  recorded  that 
875  emigrants 
crossed  the  famous 
"Oregon trail"  ;  the 
next  year  i  800 
people  went;  and 
the  next  year  3000 
more  joined  the 
forerunners.  In 
1843,  the  pioneers 
in  the  Willamette 
Valley  held  a  meet 
ing  at  Young's 
Ranch  (Champoeg) 
and  formed  a  gov 
ernment  for  the  ter- 
ritory.  Having 
braved  the  wilder 
ness  and  set  up 
their  own  govern 
ment,  the  Americans 
naturally  wanted  the  boundary  question  settled,  and  were 
ready  to  fight  off  British  interference  by  arms  if  necessary. 
In  the  presidential  election  of  1844,  the  Oregon  question 
was  linked  with  the  Texas  question  and  the  politicians 
talked  about  "  the  reannexation  of  Texas  "  and  "  the  re- 
occupation  of  Oregon."  They  declared  that  they  would 
have  all  of  Oregon.  '  Fifty-four  forty,  or  fight  "  was  a 
slogan  in  the  campaign.  However,  President  Polk  and  his 
advisers  preferred  to  fight  Mexicans  and  avoid  trouble  with 


THE  OREGON  COUNTRY  AND  THE  DISPUTED 
BOUNDARY 


WESTWARD  TO  THE   PACIFIC  279 

the  English.  So  they  compromised  with  Great  Britain  in 
1846,  and  surrendered  all  the  American  claims  to  territory 
above  the  forty-ninth  parallel. 

This  settlement,  unsatisfactory  as  it  was  to  many  people 
in  Oregon,  at  least  did  away  with  all  uncertainty,  and  the 
region  was  organized  as  a  regular  territory  in  1848.  Eleven 
years  later,  after  the  territory  of  Washington  had  been 
created  out  of  the  northern  and  eastern  portions,  the 
southern  part  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  the  free  state 
of  Oregon. 

California.      The  Early  Trade  with  Indians  and  Spaniards. 
—  When  California  was  brought  under  the  Stars  and  Stripes 
by'  the    war  with   Mexico, 
it  was  by  no  means  an  un 
known   country.      Already 
hundreds^of  roving,  enter 
prising       Americans      had 
pushed  out  to  the  coast  and 
traded  with  the  Spanish,  or 
settled  down   among  them 

to  till  the  fertile  soil.  THE  "BEAR"  FLAG  OF  THE  FIRST 

.  .,  .        TTr  .  CALIFORNIA  GOVERNMENT 

After  the  War  of  1812, 

Yankee  ship  captains  in  large  numbers  began  to  round  Cape 
Horn  and  visit  California  with  cargoes  of  hardware,  guns, 
ammunition,  cloth,  blankets,  and  leather  goods.  In  1823, 
for  instance,  Captain  Cooper,  with  the  good  ship  Rover, 
went  from  Boston  to  Monterey  with  a  cargo  of  cotton  and 
'  Yankee  notions,"  and  received  a  license  to  trade.  Cap 
tain  Cooper  loaded  his  ship  with  furs  and  sailed  to  China, 
where  he  exchanged  his  cargo  for  silks  and  tea  and  other 
products,  which  he  brought  back  to  California. 

The  Santa  Fe  Trail.  —  While  New  England  seamen  w^ere 
opening  ocean  commerce  with  California,  landsmen  in  the 
West  were  breaking  an  overland  route.  Zebulon  Pike, 


280        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


whose  famous  expedition  we  have  already  described,  called 
attention  in  a  book  published  in  1808  to  the  rich  resources 
of  northern  "New  Spain"  ;  that  is,  the  region  now  included 
in  Texas,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  California.  Pike  also 
pointed  out  how  easy  it  would  be  to  reach  Santa  Fe  from  the 
Arkansas  River.  Thereafter  traders  with  stores  of  cottons, 


THE  OVERLAND  TRAILS 

silks,  chinaware,  glass,  hardware,  and  ammunition  journeyed 
from  time  to  time  from  points  on  the  Arkansas  River  across 
the  desert  to  Santa  Fe,  and  made  large  profits  by  exchang 
ing  their  goods  for  Mexican  and  Indian  blankets,  furs, 
silver,  and  mules. 

In  1825,  Congress  appropriated  money  to  lay  out  a  trail 
from  Franklin,  Missouri,  to  Santa  Fe.  Later  Independ 
ence  became  the  starting  point  of  the  Santa  Fe  caravans. 
Great  trains  of  wagons  guarded  by  armed  men  were  dis- 


WESTWARD  TO  THE   PACIFIC  281 

patched  annually  with  goods  which  had  been  brought  up 
the  Missouri  by  boat. 

Sometimes  these  trading  bands  were  beset  by  murderous 
Indians  bent  on  robbing  them,  or  at  least  stampeding  the 
mules  to  the  desert  to  be  caught  at  leisure.  Sometimes 
they  lost  the  trail  when  sand  storms  covered  it ;  and  hun 
dreds  perished  of  thirst  and  hunger.  Still  the  profits  of  the 
trade  were  so  large  that  adventurous  drivers  and  fighters 
could  always  be  found  to  make  the  trip. 

From  Santa  Fe  to  the  Coast.  —  When  once  the  route  to 
Santa  Fe  was  established  it  was  only  a  short  time  until  a 
trail  was  broken  to  the  coast.  In  1829  Ewing  Young  went 
overland  from  a  post  near  Santa  Fe  to  Los  Angeles,  and 
soon  the  trail  to  the  coast  became  as  famous  as  the  older 
route  to  Santa  Fe.  Adventurers  and  settlers,  finding  the 
way  open,  began  to  cross  the  desert  and  mountains  in  large 
numbers.  In  1847  there  were  more  than  four  hundred 
Americans  in  a  little  settlement  of  less  than  two  thousand 
on  San  Francisco  Bay.  They  gave  the  name  of  the  bay 
to  the  village  and  began  to  transform  a  humble  trading-post 
into  a  great  metropolis. 

Gold  Discovered  in  California  (1848}.  California' Admitted 
as  a  State  (1850).  —  A  mighty  rush  to  California  began  in 
1848,  when  it  was  announced  to  the  world  that  gold  had  been 
discovered  at  Captain  Sutter's  sawmill  raceway  in  the  Sac 
ramento  Valley.  Thousands  caught  the  gold  fever.  The  in 
habitants  of  San  Francisco  and  other  towns  deserted  their 
shops  and  homes  and  went  to  the  gold  regions  ;  captains  and 
crews  left  their  ships  to  rot  in  the  harbor;  'miners  from 
Europe  rushed  across  the  Atlantic  and  joined  Americans 
from  the  East  in  the  long  overland  journey,  or  went  around 
Cape  Horn ;  lawyers,  doctors,  and  editors  threw  up  their 
work  to  search  for  gold.  It  was  estimated'  that  one 
hundred  thousand  people  went  to  California  in  1850.  The 


282        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

gold  output  was  $5,000,000  in  1848,    and   $40,000,000  in 
1849. 

On  account  of  the  great  increase  in  population  the  prices 
of  ordinary  supplies,  food  and  clothing,  mounted  skyward. 

San  Francisco  washer 
women  were  paid  eight 
dollars  a  dozen  for  wash 
ing  miners'  clothes. 
Little  board  shanties, 
called  hotels,  charged 
from  seven  dollars  to 
fourteen  dollars  a  day 
for  poor  rooms  and 
worse  board. 

After  a  few  years  the 
surface  gold  was  nearly 
all  collected,  and  the 
stream  of  immigrant 
miners  dwindled  away. 
Ranching,  fruit  growing,  and  manufacturing  assumed  a 
normal  course,  and  the  "  fever  of  '49  "  died  down.  One 
effect  of  the  miners'  invasion  was  to  keep  out  slavery,  and 
in  1850  California  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  free  state. 
The  Mormons.  —  During  this  rush  to  the  Pacific,  the  great 
plains  and  deserts  between  the  fertile  Mississippi  Valley 
and  the  coast  were  neglected  except  by  the  fur  traders, 
hunters,  and  adventurers.  It  was  left  for  a  new  religious 
sect  to  brave  the  barren  wastes  of  that  parched  region  and 
found  a  prosperous  community  on  the  route  to  California. 
This  sect  was 'the  Mormons1  or  Latter  Day  Saints.  It  had 


o^ 

SUTTER'S   SAWMILL  IN  THE  SACRAMENTO  V AL 
LEY  WHERE  GOLD  WAS  DISCOVERED 


1  The  name  "  Mormon  "  was  taken  from  a  prophet,  Mormon,  who  was  alleged 
to  have  compiled  certain  ancient  writings.  This  "  Book  of  Mormon  "  was  said 
to  have  been  discovered  by  Joseph  Smith  and  translated  by  him.  It  was  ac 
cepted  as  sacred  by  the  Mormons. 


WESTWARD  TO  THE   PACIFIC  283 

been  established  in   1830  by  Joseph  Smith,  of  New  York, 
who  declared  that  he  had  received  a  revelation  from  God. 

The  Mormons  had  a  troublous  time  from  the  beginning. 
They  went  first  to  Ohio,  then  to  Missouri,  and  at  length 
settled  in  Illinois.  There  they  began  to  practice  polyg 
amy,  that  is,  to  al  ow  their  men  to  marry  more  than  one 
wife.  This  brought  down  upon  them  the  hatred  of  their 
neighbors. 

The  Mormons  Reach  Salt  Lake.  Brlgham  Young.  - 
Feeling  that  they  were  persecuted  for  their  religious  faith, 
they  decided  to  move  to  the  Far  West,  in  the  hope  that 
they  would  be  forever  out  of  reach  of  their  enemies.  So  in 
1847,  their  new  leader,  Brigham  Young,  with  a  company  of 
picked  men  and  supplies,  went  out  to  hunt  for  another  home. 
After  a  long  search  he  chose  a  spot  overlooking  the  Salt 
Lake  Valley,  in  Utah,  and  then  went  back  to  bring  his 
people  with  him  to  their  safe  haven  in  the  desert,  far  from 
civilization.  Out  the  band  went,  in  a  great  train  of  several 
hundred  wagons,  and  on  their  arrival  they  set  to  work  with 
a  will  "  to  make  the  desert  blossom  as  a  rose."  They  verily 
did  it. 

They  brought  water  from  the  mountains  to  irrigate  the 
sandy  soil.  They  built  sawmills  and  gristmills,  roads 
and  bridges  and  canals,  and  soon  had  flourishing  farms  and 
thousands  of  cattle.  Within  a  short  time,  the  Mormon 
population  numbered  fifteen  thousand  people.  The  dis 
covery  of  gold  in  California  was  fortunate  for  them,  because 
Salt  Lake  City  became  a  stopping-point  for  the  westward 
and  the  eastward  trade.  The  Mormons  waxed  rich  and 
prosperous.  Soon  they  discovered  minerals  in  the  regions 
about  them,  and  built  mills  to  work  up  the  ores. 

Utah  Territory  Organized. — -With  the  advance  in  trade, 
manufacturing,  and  mining,  the  colony  grew  with  great 
rapidity.  The  Mormons  kept  agents  and  missionaries  in 


284        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

Europe  who  promised  good  homes  to  men  and  women  if 
they  would  come  to  the  colony  in  America.  President  Young 
once  sent  out  this  proclamation  : 

We  want  a  company  of  woolen  manufacturers  to  come  with 
machinery  and  take  our  wool  from  the  sheep  and  convert  it  into 
the  best  clothes.  .  .  .  We  want  a  company  of  potters  ;  we  need 
them,  the  clay  is  ready  and  the  dishes  wanted.  .  .  .  We  want 
some  men  to  start  a  furnace  forthwith  ;  the  coal,  iron,  and  molders 
are  waiting.  .  .  .  We  have  a  printing-press,  and  any  one  who  can 
take  good  printing  and  writing  paper  to  the  Valley  will  be  a  blessing 
to  themselves  and  the  church. 

No  wonder,  with  such  attractions,  thousands  of  indus 
trious  artisans,  many  of  them  belonging  to  other  religious 
sects,  came  to  the  new  colony  of  Deseret,  as  the  Mormons 
called  it.  In  1850  the  Utah  country  was  so  populous  that 
it  was  organized  into  a  regular  territory  of  the  United 
States. 


IV.    SUMMARY  OF  THE  FAR  WESTERN  MOVEMENT 

The  immigrants  into  the  Far  West  may  be  divided  into 
six  distinct  types  : 

1.  The  fur  traders.     In   the  early  days  the  fur  business 
was  well  organized  by  great  companies  that  sent  out  gangs 
of  men  to  trap  and  to  trade  with  the  Indians  and  bring  the 
peltries  back  to  the  eastern  markets.     For  a  long  time  the 
fur  trade  was  the  chief  business  of  St.  Louis,  the  point  to 
which  the  routes  from  the  Far  West  converged. 

2.  The  miners.     After  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California, 
miners    and    prospectors  scoured  all  the  Rocky  Mountain 
regions  for  precious  ores.     The  rush  to  California  of  course 
led   to   the   establishment  of  many  flourishing  posts  along 
the  way,  and  from  these  centers  explorers  began  to  push 
out  in  every  direction. 


WESTWARD  TO  THE  PACIFIC  285 

3.  The  cattle  rangers.     When    the    miners,    prospectors, 
and  fur  traders  brought  back  news  of  vast  reaches  of  rich 
grass    which    could    be    had    for    nothing,   cattlemen    took 
out    herds,    and    for   a   long  time   cowboys   and    cattlemen 
roamed  at  will  over  the  great  plains  from  Texas  to  Mon 
tana. 

4.  The  farmers.     After  the  cattlemen  came  the  farmers, 
who  fenced  the  land  and  became  permanent  residents.     The 
farmer  was  usually  a  different  type  of  man  from  the  ranger 
or  the  miner.     He  did  not  expect  to  get  rich  in  a  hurry,  but 
went  out  with  full  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  only  by  hard 
labor  and  thrift  could  he  win  a  competence.     Unlike  the 
miner  or  the  ranger,  he  generally  took  his  wife  and  children 
with  him  to  share  his  life  and  labor. 

5.  The  women.     It  was  not  until  the  West  passed  into  a 
settled  agricultural  stage  that  women  came  in  large  numbers 
and   that   homes   were   founded.     The   trappers,  the   early 
miners,  and  the  rangers  were  commonly  roving  and  lawless. 
Wherever  they  went  saloons  and  gambling  houses  flourished 
and  shooting  affrays  were  daily  occurrences.     When  women 
came  into  the  West,  peaceful  and  law-abiding  communities 
developed    and    civilized    conduct  took   the    place    of    the 
frontier     rowdyism  —  so     eloquently     described     in     Mark 
Twain's   "Roughing    It."     Women    not    only   contributed 
the  finer  things  of  civilization ;  they  did  their  share  of  the 
labor  in  the  varied  activities  of  farm  life,  in  doors  and  out. 

6.  Preachers    and    teachers  were    early   found    along   the 
western     trails    and    frontiers.      The     former     often     had 
more  missionary  zeal  than  education,  and  the  gospel  of  sal 
vation  which  they  preached  stirred  rather  than  edified  their 
audiences.     Their  fiery  sermons  on  everlasting  punishment 
seem  uncouth   to  us  to-day,  but  no  doubt   they  helped   to 
temper  the  rough  passions  of  the  border  sinners.     Circuit 
riders,  like  Peter  Cartwright  in  early  Illinois,  labored  with 


286        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

great  heroism  to  bring  men  and  women  to  sober  and  indus 
trious  ways  of  living.  Where  churches  were  founded,  schools 
sprang  up  also  and  teachers  were  employed  to  kindle  the 
lamp  of  learning. 

Whoever  journeys  to-day  over  any  of  the  great  railway 
lines  through  these  western  states  to  the  Pacific  can  scarcely 
appreciate  the  hardihood  of  the  men  and  women  who  crossed 
the  plains  and  deserts  more  than  half  a  century  ago  in  wagons 
drawn  by  mules  and  oxen.  And  yet  there  is  nothing  more 
wonderful  in  the  annals  of  exploration  and  daring  than  the 
westward  sweep  of  the  Americans  to  the  Pacific.  There 
is  no  Plymouth  Rock  or  Jamestown  along  the  Salt  Lake, 
Oregon,  or  Santa  Fe  Trail  to  make  any  single  expedition  as 
famous  as  those  which  laid  the  foundations  of  the  English 
empire  in  America  ;  but  there  are  thousands  of  spots  beyond 
the  Mississippi,  unrecorded  in  history,  where  were  enacted 
deeds  of  bravery  and  self-sacrifice  no  less  heroic  than  those 
connected  with  the  beginnings  of  America  on  the  "  cold 
and  barren  coasts  of  New  England,"  or  in  the  lowlands  of 
Virginia. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.    Chiefly  from  what  sections  of  the  East  did  the  settlers 
of  Iowa  come  ?     The  settlers  of  Missouri  ?     Why  would  farmers 
moving  westward  tend  to  settle  in  regions  as  similar  as  possible 
to  the  districts  that  they  had  left  ?     2.   What  causes  led  to  the 
immigration  from  the  South  into  Texas  ?     Why  did  the  Mexicans 
at  first  encourage  and  then  discourage  American  immigration  ? 

II.  i.    State  the  important  events  that  led  to  the  war  with 
Mexico.     Why  was  this  war  unpopular  in  the  North  ?     2.    Make 
a  list  of  the  important  results  of  the  war.     3.    Name  the  states 
that  have  been  formed  from  the  territory  ceded  to  the  United 
States  by  Mexico  at  the  close  of  the  war.     Compare  this  territory 
as  to  area,  surface,  agricultural  productions,  and  mineral  resources 
with  the  territory  acquired  by  the  Louisiana  purchase. 

III.  i.    How  did  the  Oregon  country  come  to   be   settled? 


WESTWARD  TO  THE   PACIFIC  287 

Give  as  many  reasons  as  you  can  explaining  the  fact  that 
Oregon  was  settled  much  earlier  than  the  other  Pacific  and 
Mountain  states.  2.  Find  on  the  map  of  North  America  the 
location  of  the  parallel  54°  40'.  What  present  British  possessions 
would  be  part  of  the  United  States  to-day  if  this  country  had 
made  good  its  claim  to  the  territory  bounded  on  the  north  by 
this  parallel  ?  Why  did  the  United  States  not  press  its  claim  to 
this  territory?  3.  What  led  Americans  to  California  prior  to 
the  discovery  of  gold  ?  Describe  the  effect  of  the  discovery  of 
gold  in  California.  4.  Why  were  the  Mormons  persecuted  in 
Illinois  ?  5.  Locate  Salt  Lake  City.  Find  from  your  geography 
what  the  character  of  the  region  about  the  Great  Salt  Lake  is 
and  what  the  Mormons  had  to  do  in  order  to  make  this  region 
their  permanent  home. 

IV.  i.  Name  the  six  groups  or  types  of  emigrants  who  suc 
cessively  went  from  the  eastern  states  into  the  Far  West.  Tell 
what  each  group  did  to  develop  the  country. 


PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  In  your  opinion  was  the  United  States  justified  in  making 
war  on  Mexico  ?     Make  a  list  of  the  arguments  on  each  side. 

2.  Make  a  study  of  the  three  great  routes  of  exploration,  trade, 
and  travel  to  the  Far  West.     Be  ready  to  trace  each  route  on  the 
map,  telling  as  many  interesting  facts  as  you  can  find  about  its 
discovery,   its   advantages   and   difficulties,    and   why   it    became 
important. 

See  Hitchcock's  "The  Louisiana  Purchase,"  pp.  215-221  ; 
Semple's  "American  History  and  Its  Geographic  Conditions/' 
pp.  186-199,  210-213,  217-219;  Hart's  "Source  Book"  (brief  ref 
erence  to  the  Oregon  Trail),  pp.  268-271. 

3.  Can  it  be  said  that  the  Texans  were  justified   in  their  ef 
fort  to  secure  their  independence  from  Mexico  ? 

See  in  True  Stories  of  Great  Americans  Bryan's  "  Sam  Hous 
ton,"  ch.  v;  also  Sprague's  "  Davy  Crockett,"  ch.  xiv. 

4.  Imagine  yourself  a  gold-miner  in  California  in  the  days  of 
the  "  'Forty-niners."  Tell  about  the  difficulties  of  reaching  the  gold 
fields,  the  work  of  the  miners,  and  the  life  of  the  mining  camps. 

See  Elson's  "Side-Lights  on  American  History,"  vol.  i,  ch.  xiii; 
Hart's  "Source  Book,"  pp.  276-279. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
THE   INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 

Great  were  the  changes  made  in  the  life  of  the  American 
people  by  the  growth  of  a  numerous  farming  population 
in  the  West  and  Southwest  and  the  "  overbalancing  "  of 
the  seaboard  by  the  new  states  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi 
valleys.  More  significant  was  the  revolution  brought  about 
by  the  introduction  of  steam  and  machinery  into  manufac 
turing  and  transportation. 

If  it  had  not  been  for  the  steam  engine,  machinery  of  all 
kinds,  the  railway,  the  steamboat,  and  the  telegraph,  the 
United  States  would  be  a  nation  of  farmers  even  to-day. 
Without  these  inventions,  the  big  cities  like  New  York, 
Chicago,  Philadelphia,  Buffalo,  and  Cleveland  would  never 
have  been  built.  Without  them  there  would  never  have 
been  the  immense  immigration  of  European  peoples,  and 
American  enterprise  would  not  have  been  carried  into  every 
market  of  the  world  where  manufactured  goods  were 
bought  and  sold.  Without  them  the  grave  questions  of 
capital  and  labor,  employment  of  men,  women,  and  children 
in  factories,  regulation  of  railways  and  industries,  govern 
ment  of  cities,  and  kindred  matters  would  never  have  come 
to  occupy  so  much  public  attention. 

It  was  the  wonderful  inventions,  too,  that  freed  the  United 
States  from  dependence  upon  Europe  for  manufactured 
goods.  In  1812,  when  the  federal  government  was  in  dire 
need  of  blankets  for  the  soldiers,  it  could  not,  to  its  chagrin, 

288 


THE   INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION  289 

buy  six  thousand  dollars'  worth  in  all  the  country ;  it  had 
to  permit  illegal  trading  with  the  enemy  in  order  to  secure 
English  clothing  for  American  soldiers.  And  yet,  strange 
as  it  may  seem,  the  very  industries  which  made  the  country 
independent  in  matters  of  business,  in  time  sent  American 
traders,  merchants,  and  capitalists  to  seek  markets  in 
every  corner  of  the  earth,  thus  drawing  the  United  States 
into  rivalry  with  the  great  nations  of  Europe.  Steam  and 
machinery  did  more  to  destroy  the  world  that  Washington 
and  Jefferson  knew  than  did  the  opening  of  the  western 
lands  to  the  pioneers. 


I.   THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF  MACHINERY  FOR  THE  COTTON 
AND  WOOLEN  INDUSTRIES 

England's  Early  Leadership  in  Industry. -- While  frontiers 
men  were  breaking  the  way  through  the  forests  to  the  Mis- 
sissippi,  enterprising  business  men  and  ingenious  inventors 
were  busy  in  shops,  smithies,  foundries,  and  tool  houses. 
They  were  making  contrivances  to  spin  and  weave,  to 
work  iron  ancT  steel,  to  use  steam  for  driving  machinery 
and  for  moving  cars  along  railways. 

In    this    enterprise    the   Americans    naturally    turned    to 
England,  for  England  was  taking  the  lead  in  all  such  matters. 
Before  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  James  Watt  had 
successfully  used  the  steam  engine  in  running  mills ;  Cromp- 
ton,  Arkwright,  and  others  had  developed  spinning  by  ma 
chinery  instead  of  by  hand ;    and  Cartwright  had  invented 
a  loom  for  weaving  cloth,  which  could  be  driven  by  steam 
or  water  power.     Other  English  inventors  had  learned  how  7 
to  use  coal  instead  of  wood  and  charcoal  in  smelting  iron  * 
ore  ancT  makingfsteel. 

These  marvelous  inventions  were  making  England  rich 
and  giving  her  leadership  over  all  nations  in  the  manu- 


290        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

facture  of  cloth,  iron,  steel,  and  nearly  all  important  com 
modities.  England  wanted  to  keep  other  countries  from 
using  these  patents  and  becoming  rivals,  so  the  English 
government  forbade  any  one  to  carry  the  new  machines 
or  models  or  plans  for  them  out  of  the  country. 

English   Mechanics   Attracted  to   America.      Samuel  Slater. 
—  With  all  their  efforts,  the  English  were  not  able  to  keep 


THE  Stourbridge  Lion,  A  LOCOMOTIVE  BROUGHT  FROM  ENGLAND  IN  1829 

their  secrets.  Shrewd  Yankees  in  New  England  set 
>  about  making  machines  of  their  own  with  such  help  as  they 
could  get  from  English  artisans  who  came  over  to  the 
United  States.  Societies  of  "  Artists  and  Manufacturers  " 
were  formed  in  the  leading  cities  of  the  North,  and  ad 
vertised  in  England  for  skilled  workmen  to  erect  machinery, 
offering  them  large  rewards  for  success. 

In  response  to  one  of  these  advertisements  by  the  Phila- 

^  delphia  Society,  Samuel  Slater,  a  workman  who  had  been 

employed  in  Arkwright's  spinning  mill,  came  to  the  United 

States  in   1789.     He  entered  into   a  contract  with  Moses 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   REVOLUTION  291 

Brown  of  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  and  built   a  complete 
spinning  mill  on  the  falls  of  the  Pawtucket  River.     In  a 
little  while  Slater  had   drawn  plans  of  the  machines   and 
taught  American  artisans  how  to  make  and  operate  them. 
In   1810  steam  was  used  at  Ballston,  New  York,  to  drive 
spinning    machines.     It    was    not    long    before    American 
machine-made  cotton  yarn  and  cloth,  especially  the  coarser    ~s 
qualities,  were  acknowledged    to    be   as  good    as   those  of    <• 
England. 

Growth  of  the  Cotton  Spinning  Industry.  —  In  spite  of  the  best 
efforts  of  the  mechanics  their  progress  was  at  first  very  slow, 
because  they  had  to  do  almost  everything  by  hand  and 
meet  English  competition  besides.  In  1804,  more  than 
ten  years  after  Slater  came  over,  there  were  only  four 
cotton  factories  running. 

Just  about  that  time  war  between  England  and  Na-O 
poleon  was  renewed  with  greater  fury  than  ever,  and  the 
destruction  of  shipping  on  the  high  seas  reduced  the  supply 
of  English  goods  (see  page  230).  This  gave  the  opportunity 
so  much  desired  by  American  manufacturers.  A  "  boom  " 
in  cotton  spinning  began.  In  1807  there  were  fifteen  cotton 
mills,  and  four  years  later  there  were  eighty-seven. 

The  Cotton  Gin  Invented  by  Eli  Whitney. — While  clever 
artisans  were  building  machinery  for  spinning,  an  observant 
Yankee  from  Connecticut,  Eli  Whitney,  invented  a  cotton 
gin,  a  machine  for  separating  the  seed  from  the  cotton. 
Any  one  who  has  ever  seen  raw  cotton  as  it  is  picked  from 
the  stem  in  the  field  knows  that  it  is  filled  with  small 
seeds  to  which  the  cotton  fibers  cling  as  tightly  as  wax. 
Formerly  it  took  a  skillful  colored  woman  a  whole  day  to 
clean  a  pound  or  two  of  cotton  by  hand. 

Young  Whitney,  during  a  stay  in  the  South,  saw  how 
tedious  and  laborious  this  process  of  cleaning  the  cotton 
was.  He  went  to  work  to  invent  a  machine  that  would  strip 


292         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

the  cotton  from  the  seeds,  and  he  was  able  to  announce 
his  success  in  1792,  just  a  little  while  after  Samuel  Slater 
commenced  to  build  spinning  machinery  in  Rhode  Island. 
In  a  short  time  Whitney's  gin  was  so  perfected  that,  when 


A  COTTON  GIN,  A  SIMPLE  MACHINE  FOR   SEPARATING  THE  SEEDS  FROM  THE 
COTTON,  INVENTED  BY  ELI  WHITNEY 

driven  by  power,  a  single  machine  could  clean  a  thousand 
pounds  in  a  day.  The  whole  cotton  industry  could  now 
swing  forward  at  high  speed,  for  it  was  freed  from  dependence 
upon  hand  labor.  The  demand  for  cotton  now  became  so 
strong  that  planters  could  not  get  enough  new  lands  and 
slaves  to  supply  it. 

The  Cotton  Weaving  Industry.  -  -  The  yarn  made  in  the  spin 
ning  mills  was,  at  first,  woven  into  cloth  by  hand  ;  the  power 
loom,  indeed,  was  not  extensively  used  even  in  England 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 


293 


until  after  the  first  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
yarn  was  taken  from  the  mills  and  distributed  among 
hand  weavers  in  town  and  country,  who  worked  it  up  into 
cloth  which  was  collected  by  merchants  and  carried  to  the 
markets  for  sale. 


-fp 

.  ^f  :.-y. 


in!*-  .nyg 


'•-••     •&* •fl'l ''  u=ss==^       ,    .„  ^ , 

i;..?.5B-i.:ff^^  r_:.:'X:;i'^'  &vt:VV'.-- 

(f&.^^v  >.'•'"'!  :••..-  ;."•""--•,...-,-  ,,-...:    •"- •" a ; -:i'h  vr;y,  --;r'; 


V 

...  (-^fTT'frv^.X     -^.^-. -.      - 

.4s 

\\-l ,  N5>i^:i'';* 

WASHINGTON  ON  A  VISIT  TO  ONE  OF  THE  FIRST  COTTON  MILLS 

It  seems  that  it  was  not  until  1814  that  the  first  practical 
power  loom  was  established  in  America — at  Waltham, 
Massachusetts,  by  Francis  Lowell.  In  his  factory  the 
cotton  from  the  bales  was  turned  into  finished  cloth  by 
carding,  spinning,  weaving,  and  printing  machines  driven 
by  power.  The  work  was  so  simplified  that  the  machines 
became  almost  automatic,  and  women  and  little  children 
"  of  a  tender  age  "  could  be  profitably  employed  to  "  mind  " 
them,  men  being  needed  only  for  the  heavier  tasks  and  the 
making  of  repairs. 

Rise  of  the  Woolen  Industry. --The  woolen  industry  soon 
began  to  flourish  along  with  the  cotton  trade.  A  broad- 


294        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


cloth  factory,  including  a  carding  machine  for  cleaning 
and  straightening  the  wool  fibers,  a  spinning  jenny,  and  a 
hand  loom,  had  been  established  by  Schofield  Brothers  at 

Newburyport,  in  1794, 
and  later  transferred  to 
Pittsfield,  Massachu 
setts,  where  there  was 
abundant  water  power. 
Somewhat  later  a  power 
loom  for  weaving  woolen 
cloth  was  set  up  at 
South  Kingston,  Rhode 
Island,  by  Rowland 
Hazard.  By  1828  a 
complete  woolen  fac- 
with 
Step 


A  HAND  LOOM  SUCH  AS  WAS  USED  IN 
COLONIAL  DAYS 


tory,      equipped 

power  machines  throughout,  was  in  operation  there, 
by  step  the  work  was  taken  from  the  homes. 

There  are  grandmothers  in  the  Middle  West  who  can  tell 
how  in  the  old  days  they  had  to  card,  spin,  and  weave  at 
home ;  how  the  carding  mills  sprang  up  along  the  little 
rivers  where  there  were  waterfalls ;  how  the  wool  was 
carried  on  horseback  or  in  wagons  sometimes  twenty  or 
thirty  miles  to  be  carded ;  how,  after  a  while,  a  spinning 
machine  or  two  would  be  set  up  beside  the  carding 
machine,  and  how  finally  with  the  coming  of  the  railway, 
which  made  it  easy  and  cheap  to  bring  cloth  from  New 
England,  these  little  mills  were  closed  and  fell  into  decay. 
The  old  "  overshot  "  water  wheels  became  moss-grown, 
the  roofs  of  the  mills  fell  in,  and  the  children  played  about 
the  ruins,  all  heedless  of  the  great  change  in  American  life 
which  the  venerable  wrecks  recorded. 

The  Sewing  Machine.  Howe  and  Singer.  —  When  the 
spinning  and  weaving  machines  had  taken  the  cloth  making 


THE   INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION  295 

out  of  the  homes,  sewing  by  hand  was  still  left  behind. 
Clothes  had  to  be  made  with  thread,  needle,  and  thimble 
-  "  the  everlasting  stitching."  Then  came  a  revolution  in 
sewing.  In  1846  Elias  Howe,  a  poor  man  who  had  labored 
for  years  in  a  garret,  on  the  verge  of  starvation  and 
amid  the  greatest  trials,  at  last  brought  out  a  sewing  ma 
chine.  A  little  later  I.  M.  Singer  introduced  the  sale  of 
this  wonderful  contrivance  on  the  installment  plan,  so  that 
it  could  go  into  the  homes  of  the  poorest  people. 

By  1860  there  were  over  forty  thousand  sewing  machines 
in  the  United  States.  It  was  not  long  before  the  sewing 
machine  was  introduced  into  factories  and  operated  by 
power.  '  Ready-made  "  clothing  of  all  kinds  was  then 
put  on  the  market  at  astonishingly  low  prices  —  one  fourth 
those  charged  by  hand-sewing  tailors.  Between  1850  and 
1860  the  output  of  the  clothing  factories  increased  in  value 
from  $48,000,000  to  $80,000,000  annually.  "  Everlasting 
stitching  "  went  on  in  a  new  way. 

II.   THE  IRON  INDUSTRY;  FARM  MACHINERY 

The  Iron  Industry.  -  -  The  use  of  power-driven  machinery 
could  not  go  very  far  without  large  supplies  of  iron  and 
steel.  Before  the  American  Revolution  there  had  been 
little  iron  mines  and  forges  in  nearly  every  state,  and  char 
coal  had  been  used  to  melt  the  ore  down  for  drawing  off 
the  metal.  After  independence  had  been  established, 
American  smiths  brought  large  quantities  of  soft  coal  from 
England  for  smelting  purposes;  but  when  the  War  of  1812 
cut  off  the  supply,  ironmasters  of  eastern  Pennsylvania 
were  forced  to  use  native  coal. 

The  use  of  the  air  blast,  invented  in  the  eighteenth  cen 
tury,  enabled  them  to  make  hot  fires  even  with  hard 
coal.  As  the  supplies  of  coal  in  Pennsylvania  were  un- 


296         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

limited,  the  iron  industries  began  to  flourish  there  so  rapidly 
that  they  drove  out  of  business  in  time  most  of  the  little 
forges  in  the  other  states. 

Western  Pennsylvania  Becomes  the  Center  of  the  Iron 
Industry.  -  -  The  great  development  of  the  iron  industry 
in  Pennsylvania  came  after  the  discovery  of  iron  ore  in 
the  valley  of  the  Youghiogheny,  where  a  smelting  furnace 
was  erected  as  early  as  1790.  Fifteen  years  later  there 
were  five  furnaces  and  six  forges  in  Fayette  County.  Roll 
ing  mills  and  steel  furnaces  quickly  followed.  Soon  the 
valleys  of  the  Allegheny  and  the  Monongahela  were  dotted 
with  mines  and  furnaces,  and  Pittsburgh,  which  had  had 
only  about  four  hundred  inhabitants  when  the  Constitu 
tion  was  adopted  in  1788,  became  a  great  city.  Ore  and 
pig  iron  were  floated  down  in  barges  to  Pittsburgh,  where 
rolling  mills,  steel  furnaces,  and  iron  works  turned  out 
nails,  hinges,  locks,  plows,  axes,  spades,  knives,  skillets, 
sugar  kettles,  and  a  hundred  other  implements  and  utensils 
used  by  the  settlers  of  the  West.  Pennsylvania's  iron 
masters  boasted  that  they  could  soon  supply  all  the 
needs  of  the  United  States,  if  English  iron  and  steel  were 
kept  out  by  a  high  tariff  (see  page  248). 

Improvements  in  Farm  Machinery.  —  With  all  the  in 
ventions  for  spinning,  weaving,  and  ironworking,  it  was 
natural  that  some  geniuses  should  try  to  improve  the  tools 
used  by  farmers.  At  the  time  of  the  American  Revolu 
tion  the  farmers'  implements  did  not  show  much  improve 
ment  over  those  which  had  been  used  in  the  days  of  the  Ro 
mans.  The  plowshare  and  mold  board  were  made  of  wood 
and  were  easily  worn  out  or  broken.  Grain  was  cut  with 
a  hand  sickle  or  a  scythe  and  cradle,  and  threshed  with 
a  hand  flail  or  tramped  out  by  cattle.  Toward  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century  an  English  machine  for  threshing 
had  been  introduced  in  a  few  places,  and  an  iron  plowshare 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 


297 


IMPROVEMENT  IN  THE  MACHINERY  FOR  CUTTING  GRAIN:  THE  CRADLE, 
MCCORMICK'S  FIRST  REAPER,  AND  THE  SELF-BINDER 


298        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

was  sometimes  used.  A  plow  with  a  mold  board  all  cast 
in  one  piece  of  iron  was  patented  in  1797,  and  within 
twenty-five  years  the  wooden  plow  had  almost  disappeared, 
though  occasionally  a  wooden  mold  board  was  found 
attached  to  an  iron  share. 

The  Reaper.  Cyrus  McCormick.  —  In  1833  Obed  Hus- 
)  sey,  of  Baltimore,  invented  a  reaper,  and  in  1834  Cyrus 
McCormick  made  one  in  a  blacksmith's  shop  in  the  Shenan- 
doah  Valley.  In  1846  McCormick  established  a  manu 
factory  at  Cincinnati ;  three  years  later  he  built  a  plant 
in  Chicago,  the  center  of  the  grain-growing  region.  From 
year  to  year  he  improved  his  machine,  until  finally  it 
reached  such  a  pitch  of  perfection  that  one  man  with  a 
team  of  horses  could  cut  as  much  grain  in  a  day  as  five 
or  six  men  with  scythes  and  cradles.  At  first  the  machine 
merely  cut  the  grain  off  and  let  it  fall  behind  as  it  was  cut ; 
then  a  carrying-board  was  attached  and  a  child  rode  along 
to  rake  the  wheat  off  at  intervals  for  binding  into  bundles. 
The  "  self-rake  "  which  automatically  delivered  the  grain  in 
piles  was  next  developed;  about  1880  came  the  self-binder, 
which  cut  the  wheat  and  bound  it  into  bundles ;  and  at  last 
there  was  invented  a  giant  machine,  drawn  by  many 
horses  or  by  an  engine,  which  cut  and  threshed  the  wheat 
in  one  operation. 

Industries  in  the  West.  --  For  a  long  time,  the  de 
velopment  of  industries  was  confined  largely  to  the  East. 
According  to  an  expert  in  the  figures  of  business,  the 
annual  value  of  American  manufactures  in  the  mills 
and  in  the  homes  of  the  people  was  nearly  two  hundred 
million  dollars  in  1810,  and  four  fifths  of  the  goods  were 
produced  in  five  states  :  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Virginia, 
New  York,  and  Massachusetts.  But  it  was  not  long  before 
factories  began  to  spring  up  beyond  the  mountains,  es 
pecially  wherever  there  was  water  power, 


THE   INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION  299 

In  1821  Beaver  Creek,  Kentucky,  boasted  of  saw  and 
grist  mills,  a  carding  mill,  and  an  iron  furnace  and  forge; 
Maysville  had  a  rope  factory  and  glass  works ;  there  was  a 
cotton  mill  at  Paris.  At  Cincinnati,  about  the  same  time, 
a  traveler  found  a  foundry  and  nail  mill,  woolen  and  cotton 
factories,  a  tannery,  glass  works,  and  a  shipyard  where 
river  steamers  were  built.  To  Cincinnati  the  farmers  for  a 
hundred  miles  around  hauled  thejr  wheat  or  drove  their 
hogs  and  cattle,  and  exchanged  them  for  goods  made  there 
or  brought  over  the  mountains  to  that  market.  As  a  visitor 
in  1840  picturesquely  put  it :  "  There  I  heard  the  crack  of 
the  cattle  driver's  whip  and  the  hum  of  the  factory :  the 
West  and  the  East  meeting." 


III.   IMPROVEMENTS  IN  TRANSPORTATION;  CANAL 
DEVELOPMENT 

The  Necessity  for  Improved  Transportation.  —  All  great  in 
dustries  depend  for  their  existence  on  the  sale  of  goods 
over  a  large  territory.  No  single  community  can  consume 
the  output  of  a  huge  factory,  and  in  the  extension  of  their 
business  it  was  necessary  for  men  to  travel  widely  with 
samples  of  their  wares.  This  called  for  rapid  means  of 
transportation  and  communication,  linking  together  all 
sections.  American  enterprise  quickly  set  to  work  on  this 
problem,  and  in  a  little  while  wonderful  results  were  accom 
plished.  All  over  the  country  private  companies  were 
organized  to  build  turnpikes  and  canals.  State  govern 
ments  gave  their  aid  to  the  undertakings.  The  federal  gov 
ernment  came  to  the  help  of  the  people  and  built  the  na 
tional  road  connecting  Cumberland,  near  the  head-waters 
of  the  Potomac,  with  the  Mississippi  Valley  (see  page  220). 

The  Erie  Canal  (1825).  De  Witt  Clinton. — The  opening 
of  the  Cumberland  route  into  the  West  excited  the  mer- 


300        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


chants  of  Philadelphia  and  New  York,  who  wanted  direct 
connections  of  their  own.  In  New  York  state  enterpris 
ing  leaders  induced  the  government  to  begin  a  canal  con 
necting  the  Hudson  River  with  Lake  Erie.  Under  the 


"SS& 


THE  ERIE  CANAL,  BEGUN  UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  GOVERNOR  DE  WITT 
CLINTON  IN  1817  AND  COMPLETED  IN  1825 

enthusiastic  direction  of  Governor  Clinton  it  was  com 
menced  in  1817,  fourteen  years  after  the  admission  of  Ohio 
to  the  Union,  and  one  year  after  the  admission  of  Indiana. 
For  its  day  it  was  a  marvelous  piece  of  engineering  work, 
greatly  exceeding  in  difficulty  the  construction  of  the 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION  301 

Panama  Canal  in  our  time.  It  was  363  miles  long,  and 
although  a  large  portion  of  the  way  was  level,  there  were 
numerous  hills  to  be  cut  through  and  many  rivers,  swamps, 
and  valleys  to  be  crossed.  Wiseacres  said  it  never  could 
be  done,  and  they  called  it  "  Clinton's  Big  Ditch  "  and 
"  Clinton's  Folly." 

The  work  was  finished  in  1825.  In  the  autumn  of  that 
year  the  news  that  the  waters  of  Lake  Erie  were  let  into 
the  Canal  was  carried  to  New  York  City  by  the  firing  of 
cannon  all  along  the  line  at  a  distance  of  five  miles  apart. 
On  November  4,  Governor  Clinton  and  a  party  of  his 
friends  went  from  Buffalo  to  New  York  City  on  a  fleet  of 
canal  boats.  They  carried  kegs  of  w^ater  from  Lake  Erie, 
which  they  poured  into  the  Atlantic  as  a  sign  that  the 
ocean  and  the  Great  Lakes  were  forever  united.  The 
ringing  of  bells  and  firing  of  cannon  in  New  York  City 
accompanied  the  grand  ceremony  in  the  Hudson  River. 

Influence  of  Canal  Traffic  on  Freight  Rates.  Other 
Canals. --The  effect  of  the  canal  was  startling.  Freight 
which  cost  $32  a  ton  per  hundred  miles  by  wagon  road  was 
reduced  to  $i  a  ton  by  canal  route.  Barges  of  wheat, 
corn,  bacon,  and  other  farm  produce  from  the  lands  around 
the  Great  Lakes  began  to  float  down  the  canal.  Buffalo, 
Rochester,  and  Syracuse  soon  became  thriving  trading 
centers.  Passenger  boats  fitted  up  "  luxuriously "  made 
regular  trips  from  Albany  westward  according  to  schedule. 
Although  the  traveling  was  slow,  it  was  safe  and  sure,  and 
quite  rapid  as  compared  with  the  wagon  journeys  over  bad 
roads.  In  time  a  chain  of  canals  connected  Cleveland  on 
Lake  Erie  with  Columbus  and  Cincinnati  and  the  Ohio  River 
to  the  southward,  thus  opening  a  line  of  water  communi-  . 
cation  from  the  heart  of  the  Ohio  region  to  New  York  City. 

Canals  and  Portage  Railway  in  Pennsylvania.  —  Phila 
delphia  merchants,  frightened  at  the  thought  of  losing 


302        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

their  western  trade  to  New  York  merchants,  induced  their 
state  to  construct  a  system  of  canals  and  portages  connect 
ing  the  coast  with  the  Ohio  Valley.  The  rivers  were  used 
as  far  as  possible,  and  canals  connecting  the  rivers  were 
built  to  afford  continuous  water  passage.  Wherever  canals 
could  not  be  bliilt,  rails  were  laid  and  the  boats  and 
cargoes  hauled  overland  on  wheeled  cars  to  the  nearest 
navigable  stream.  This  was  an  expensive  line  to  build  and 
operate,  but  it  made  possible  direct  connection  with  Pitts 
burgh,  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis,  and  the  other  trading  points 
on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers.  It  enabled  the  Phila 
delphia  merchants  to  extend  their  trade  in  the  West  and 
Southwest.  The  boats  which  carried  cargoes  of  merchandise 
to  the  West  returned  filled  with  farm  products  or  with 
coal  and  iron  from  the  Pittsburgh  region. 

IV.   THE  STEAMBOAT  AND  THE  RAILROAD 

The  Steamboat.  Robert  Fulton  (1807}. — While  the 
states  were  feverishly  planning  and  building  canals,  a 
new  means  of  transportation  by  water  was  being  invented 
and  perfected,  namely,  the  steamboat.  In  the  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century  several  inventors  had  worked 
on  the  problem  of  using  the  steam  engine  to  drive  boats  on 
rivers  and  at  sea.  At  length  Robert  Fulton,  in  1807, 
launched  his  famous  steamboat,  the  Clermont,  which  made 
the  trip  from  New  York  to  Albany,  a  distance  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles,  in  thirty-two  hours,  and  the  return 
journey  in  thirty  hours,  with  the  wind  ahead  both  ways. 
In  1811  a  steamboat  was  plying  the  Ohio,  and  the  next 
year  steamboats  began  regular  runs  from  Pittsburgh  to  New 
Orleans  and  back. 

Faster  Transportation  Needed. —-The  steamboat  proved  an 
aid  rather  than  a  competitor  to  the  canals,  for  it  gave 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   REVOLUTION 


303 


better  facilities  for  carrying  freight  and  passengers  to  and 
from  the  points  connected  by  them.  At  best  the  canals 
offered  slow  means  of  transportation,  and  often  they  were 
closed  in  winter  time  by  ice.  A  quicker  means  than  the 
steamboat  of  carrying  goods  and  passengers  was  demanded. 
Scores  of  inventors  in  England  and  the  United  States  were 
racking  their  brains  for  some  plan  to  use  the  steam  engine 
in  hauling  wagons  and  cars. 


FULTON'S  Clermont,  THE  FIRST  BOAT  DRIVEN  SUCCESSFULLY  BY  STEAM  POWER 

Stephenson's  Locomotive.  —  It  had  long  been  a  practice  to 
lay  down  stone  or  wooden  tracks  for  the  wheels  of  wagons 
drawn  by  horses.  There  were  many  of  these  short  "  rail 
roads  "  both  in  England  and  in  the  United  States  at  the 
opening  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  1814  George  Stephen- 
son,  an  English  miner,  succeeded  in  making  a  steam 
locomotive,  "  Puffing  Billy,"  which  was  used  in  hauling  cars 
over  such  a  road  at  the  mines  where  he  worked.  Ten  years 
later,  the  Stockton  and  Darlington  railroad  in  the  north  of 
England  was  opened. 

The  Railroad  in  America.  John  Stevens.  —  American  in 
ventors  were  alive  to  what  was  going  on  in  England,  and 
they  had  plenty  of  ideas  of  their  own  as  well.  John  Stevens, 
of  Hoboken,  New  Jersey,  has  been  called  "  the  father  of  the 
American  railroad,"  because  he  early  began  to  experiment 


304        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

with  "  steam  carriages."  In  1811,  he  applied  to  the  legisla 
ture  of  that  state  for  permission  to  build  a  railway  line.  He 
was  regarded  as  a  dreamer,  and  the  charter  was  not  granted. 
He  then  applied  in  New  York  for  permission  to  build  a  rail 
road  to  Buffalo,,  to  be  used  instead  of  the  canal.  Again 
he  failed.  Then  he  turned  back  to  New  Jersey,  and  finally, 
in  1815,  he  secured  the  first  railway  charter  granted  in  the 
United  States,  authorizing  him  to  build  a  line  connecting 
the  Delaware  and  Raritan  rivers. 

Stevens  was  unable,  however,  to  induce  people  with 
money  to  invest  in  his  scheme.  Wiseacres  laughed  at  the 
idea  of  traveling  at  the  rate  of  ten  or  twenty  miles  an  hour. 
They  said  it  was  impossible  for  a  steam  engine  and  a  train 
of  cars  to  round  a  curve.  Stevens  proved  them  wrong 
by  building  a  circular  track  in  Hoboken  and  driving  an 
engine  with  cars  around  it.  Opponents  of  railroads  said 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  get  over  the  mountains. 
Friends  of  railroads  replied  that  they  would  make  tunnels 
"  passages  like  a  well,  dug  horizontally  through  the 
hills  or  mountains." 

In  spite  of  discouragements,  men  here  and  there  in  the 
country  began  to  build  short  lines.  The  Mohawk  and 
Hudson  was  chartered  by  New  York  in  1826,  and  in  the 
same  year  the  Granite  Railway  from  Quincy  to  Tidewater 
was  chartered  by  Massachusetts.  The  first  line  over  which 
a  steam  locomotive  was  driven  was  the  Carbondale  road, 
built  in  1828  near  Honesdale,  Pennsylvania,  to  connect  the 
town  with  coal  mines  sixteen  miles  away. 

Early  Railway  Lines.  —  In  1828,  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Railroad  Company  began  to  build  the  first  really  great  rail 
way  system  in  the  United  States.  The  work  was  opened 
with  much  ceremony,  and  Charles  Carroll,  then  ninety- 
three  years  old,  the  last  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  turned  the  first  sod,  saying  that  he  con- 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   REVOLUTION 


305 


sidered  that  day's  deed  second  only  in  importance  to  his 
famous  service  on  July  4,  1776.  After  some  experiments 
with  horse  cars,  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  adopted  steam. 
In  1831  Peter  Cooper's  engine,  "Tom  Thumb,"  made  the 
journey  between  Baltimore  and  Ellicott's  Mills  at  the  speed 
of  thirteen  miles  an  hour. 


From  photographs  of  models 

A  HORSE  CAR  USED  ON  THE  BALTIMORE  AND  OHIO  ;    ALSO  PETER  COOPER'S 
ENGINE,  "TOM  THUMB,"  LATER  USED  ON  THE  SAME  RAILROAD 

In  other  parts  of  the  country  railway  companies  were  busy. 
In  South  Carolina,  "  The  Best  Friend,"  an  engine  built  by 
the  West  Point  Foundry  Company,  made  a  trip  from 
Charleston  to  Hamburg  in  1830,  at  a  speed  of  from  sixteen 
to  twenty-one  miles  an  hour,  drawing  five  loaded  cars.  In 
1832  the  trial  trip  over  the  line  from  Albany  to  Schenec- 
tady,  a  distance  of  seventeen  miles,  was  made  in  one  hour 
by  Governor  Clinton,  of  canal  fame,  and  a  party  of  legis 
lators.  When,  they  reached  their  journey's  end  they  dined 
in  state,  and  among  the  toasts  drunk  on  that  occasion  was 
this  seemingly  wild  prophecy :  '  The  Buffalo  Railroad  - 
may  we  soon  breakfast  in  Utica,  dine  in  Rochester,  and 
sup  with  our  friends  on  Lake  Erie  !  " 

The  Rapid  Railroad  Development.  —  As  soon  as  the 
railway  was  found  to  be  a  success,  a  perfect  frenzy  of  rail 
way  building  seized  the  people  everywhere.  Within  thirty 


306         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

years  the  Atlantic  coast  was  connected  with  the  West  by 
what  are  now  the  Boston  and  Albany,  the  New  York  Central, 
the  Erie,  the  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
lines.  Within  less  time  than  that,  the  distance  from  Port 
land,  Maine,  to  Wilmington,  North  Carolina  —  a  thousand 
miles  —  was  covered  by  a  chain  of  short  connecting 
lines. 

Soon  the  fever  reached  the  West.  In  1838  a  line  between 
Detroit  and  Ann  Arbor  (now  the  Michigan  Central)  was 
constructed.  Four  years  later  it  was  possible  to  travel  by 
rail  from  Boston  to  Buffalo,  and  by  1852  a  railway  journey 
from  the  East  to  Chicago  was  advertised.  In  1857  Chicago 
and  St.  Louis  were  connected  by  what  is  now  the  Alton 
railroad ;  that  same  year  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  trains 
began  running  into  St.  Louis. 

In  the  South  the  growth  of  railways  was  slower,  but  by 
1850  Fredericksburg,  Virginia,  was  connected  with  Wil 
mington,  North  Carolina,  and  Norfolk  with  Raleigh.  A 
line  from  Charleston  penetrated  eastern  Tennessee,  and 
united  Knoxville  with  the  coast.  A  railway  connected 
Savannah  with  the  heart  of  Georgia,  and  trains  were 
running  from  Montgomery,  Alabama,  to  Pensacola  on 
the  sea. 

In  1850  Congress  made  huge  grants  of  land  to  Illinois,  to 
aid  a  company  in  building  a  line  (now  the  Illinois  Central) 
from  Chicago  to  Cairo,  and  similar  grants  were  made  to 
Alabama  and  Mississippi  for  railways.  By  1860  the  Illinois 
Central,  the  Mississippi  Central,  and  connecting  lines 
were  open.  Thus  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  was  linked  with 
Chicago. 

The  Development  of  the  Express  Business.  —  Along  with 
the'  growth  of  railways  came  the  establishment  of  express 
companies.  In  1839  W.  F.  Harnsden,  of  Massachusetts, 
began  to  make  trips  between  Boston  and  New  York  three 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   REVOLUTION  307 

times  a  week  transporting  valuable  packages  under  guard. 
It  was  not  long  before  he  had  so  much  to  carry  that  it 
became  necessary  to  use  special  cars  for  the  purpose.  Soon 
express  offices  were  opened  in  New  York  and  Philadelphia, 
and  in  1842  express  service  was  established  on  the  Hudson 
River. 

In  1845  a  western  express  to  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and 
St.  Louis  was  opened  by  Wells  and  Fargo.  In  the  same 
year  the  Adams  Express  Company  was  organized.  Seven 
years  later  the  American  Express  Company  bought  out  the 
eastern  lines  of  Wells  and  Fargo,  who  then  opened  express 
routes  over  the  plains  and  deserts,  and  by  way  of  Panama, 
to  the  Pacific.  A  pound  package  was  soon  carried  from 
New  York  to  the  Pacific  coast  for  forty  cents. 

The  express  companies  did  not  confine  their  operations 
to  railway  lines.  They  built  stage  and  wagon  routes,  and 
established  the  pony  express  to  carry  mail  and  packages 
into  the  wilds  of  the  mountains  and  to  the  very  borders  of 
civilization. 

V.   THE  ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH;   OCEAN  NAVIGATION 

The  Electric  Telegraph  (1844).  5.  F.  B.  Morse, --The 
people  were  hardly  accustomed  to  the  steam  railway  before 
a  still  more  mysterious  contrivance,  "  the  magnetic  tele 
graph,"  was  invented.  Experiments  in  transmitting  signs 
by  electricity  along  wires  had  been  made  by  many  men, 
but  it  was  an  American'  genius,  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  aided 
by  Alfred  Vail,  who  made  a  practical  success  in  sending 
messages. 

After  he  found,  in  1838,  that  he  could  communicate 
over  three  miles  of  wire,  Morse  applied  to  the  government 
of  the  United  States  for  aid,  because  he  was  a  poor  man 
and  had  endured  extreme  poverty  while  working  at  his 
invention.  He  was  finally  successful,  Congress  in  1843 


308        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

voting  $30,000  for  a  line  between  Washington  and  Balti 
more,  which  was  completed  the  next  year.  The  success 
of  the  experiment  led  to  the  organization  of  many  com 
panies  to  connect  all  the  important  cities  of  the  country. 
In  a  little  while  a  business  man  could  transact  business  in 
Boston,  New  York,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  New  Orleans  on 
the  same  day. 

The  Atlantic  Cable.  Cyrus  W.  Field. — A  still  more  won 
derful  experiment  —  a  trans-Atlantic  cable — was  begun  in 
1857.  The  idea  of  a  cable  was  suggested  as  early  as  1850 
by  John  A.  Roebling,  of  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  and  also  by 
Matthew  Maury,  a  distinguished  scientist  of  Virginia, 
whose  studies  of  ocean  currents  and  beds  gave  him  the 
name  of  "The  Pathfinder  of  the  Seas."  Cyrus  W.  Field, 
aided  by  the  federal  government  and  by  business  men 
in  this  country  and  England,  began  to  lay  a  cable  along 
the  floor  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  unite  the  New  World  with 
the  Old.  Twice  the  cable  broke,  after  it  had  been  laid  far 
out  at  sea.  Each  time  Field  renewed  his  task,  and  in 
1858  communication  was  opened.  A  little  while  after  the 
President  of  the  United  States  and  Queen  Victoria  had 
exchanged  greetings,  the  cable  broke  again ;  so  Field,  amid 
trying  discouragements,  had  all  his  work  to  do  over.  He 
never  faltered,  and  in  1866  he  established  permanent  cable 
communications. 

Ocean  Navigation.  Early  American  Shipbuilding.  —  In 
spite  of  the  wonderful  development  of  steam  navigation,  the 
United  States  came  to  depend  mainly  on  European  ships  to 
carry  freight  and  passengers  across  the  Atlantic.  This  was 
not  because  American  shipbuilders  and  sailors  were  less 
keen  than  those  of  the  Old  World.  On  the  contrary,  they 
equaled  in  skill  the  best  in  the  world,  and  they  had  oak  and 
hard  pine  in  abundance  to  build  fast  clippers  and  great 
merchantmen.  > 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   REVOLUTION  309 

For  a  long  time  after  the  War  of  1812  they  proved  their 
ability.  American  vessels  carried  the  flag  into  all  harbors 
of  the  world,  and  American  masters  and  sailors  showed  that 
they  were  second  to  none  in  their  energy,  self-reliance,  and 
initiative.  Moreover,  it  was  an  American-built  ship,  the 
Savannah,  that  first  crossed  the  ocean  partly  under  steam 
power  in  1819.  But  the  importance  of  this  event  was  not 
realized  in  America  and  public  opinion  was  not  awakened 
to  the  need  of  government  aid. 

Ocean  Transportation  Subsidized.  -  -  The  English  govern 
ment,  on  the  other  hand,  knew  the  value  of  a  merchant 
marine.  In  1839  it  gave  a  large  cash  bonus  or  subsidy  to 
the  Cunard  Steamship  Company,  which  began  operating 
vessels  across  the  Atlantic  —  a  concern  that  soon  grew  to 
immense  proportions.  The  next  year  the  English  govern 
ment  voted  money  to  lines  operating  to  the  ports  of  India 
and  China  and  to  the  ports  along  the  west  coast  of  South 
America. 

A  burst  of  shipping  enterprise  on  the  part  of  the  British 
was  followed  in  1845  by  action  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States  government.  In  that  year  it,  too,  voted  money: 
to  the  Ocean  Steamship  Line,  running  from  New  York  to 
Bremen,  and  to  the  Collins  Line,  operating  from  New 
York  to  Liverpool.  Three  years  later,  the  Pacific  Mail 
Line  around  the  Horn  to  California  was  granted  a  subsidy. 
For  a  time  American  companies,  thus  aided  by  the  govern 
ment,  held  their  own,  and  men  dreamed  of  the  day  when 
American  shipping  would  cover  the  sea. 

The  Decline  of  American  Deep-sea  Commerce.  -  -  Then  dis 
satisfaction  with  granting  public  money  to  ship  companies 
grew  up.  Southern  planters  thought  that  they  could  ship 
cotton  and  other  produce  cheaper  in  English  ships.  In 
1856  Congress  lowered  the  grants  of  money  to  the  Collins 
Line,  and  in  1858  abandoned  subsidies  altogether.  In  a 


3IO        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

little  time  the  American  ships  were  sold  to  English  com 
panies,  and  most  of  the  ocean-carrying  trade  passed  into 
their  hands. 

American  skill  and  energy  went  into  the  development 
of  manufacturing  and  mining  and  the  construction  of  rail 
ways.  By  1850  the  output  of  industries  began  to  rival  ;n 
value  the  output  of  farms  and  plantations.  The  United 
States  was  clearly  destined  to  be  a  great  industrial  nation, 
not  merely  a  nation  of  planters  and  small  farmers,  as  Jeffer 
son  had  hoped. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.    Why  are  the  changes  that  were  brought  about  by  the 
steam  engine   and   the  introduction   of  steam-driven   machinery 
called  the  "Industrial  Revolution"?       2.    In  what  way  was  the 
United  States  still  dependent  upon  England  after  the  War  for 
Independence?        3.    Who    was    Samuel    Slater?      Why    is    his 
name  remembered  ?       4.    In  what  part  of  the  country  did   the 
cotton   and   woolen   industries   first  develop  ?     What  reasons   are 
there    for    their  early    development    in    this    region?       5.    Who 
invented  the  cotton  gin  ?     Why  was  the  invention  so  important  ? 
6.    What  names  are  connected  with  the  invention  of  the  sewing 
machine  ? 

II.  i.    Why  did  Pennsylvania  become  the  center  of  the  iron 
industry  ?     What  are  the  advantages  of  Pittsburgh  as  a  center  of 
iron  and  steel  manufacturing  ?     Find  from  your  geographies  the 
names  of  the  principal  iron  and  steel  manufacturing  cities  in  the 
Pittsburgh    district.       2.    What    did    Cyrus    McCormick    do    to 
make  his  name  remembered  ? 

III.  i.    Why  did   the   industrial   revolution   increase  the  de 
mand    for    improved    methods    of    travel    and     transportation  ? 
2.    What  led  the  people  of  New  York  to  approve   of  Clinton's 
plan  for  the  Erie  Canal  ?     What  other  means  of  getting  goods 
from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  Middle  West  were  there  at  this 
time?     What  are'the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  shipping 
goods  by  canal  ? 

IV.  i.    When  and  by  whom  was  the  first  successful  steam 
boat  built  ?     Can  you  think  of  any  reasons  why  the  steamboat 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   REVOLUTION  311 

should  have  been  developed  earlier  than  the  railroad  ?  2.  What 
names  are  connected  with  the  early  railroads  of  England  ?  Of  the 
United  States?  3.  Compare  the  speed  of  the  early  American 
locomotives  with  that  of  present-day  locomotives. 

V.  i.  What  names  and  dates  are  connected  with  the  inven 
tion  of  the  electric  telegraph  and  the  development  of  the  ocean 
cables  ?  2.  At  about  what  time  did  steam  become  important 
in  ocean  transportation  ?  Can  you  think  of  any  reasons  wThy 
ocean  steamships  wTere  developed  much  later  than  river  steam 
boats  ? 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Tell  the  story  of  the  invention  and  early  development   of 
the  steam  engine. 

See  Mowry's  "American  Inventions  and  Inventors,"  ch.  vii; 
Warren's  "Stories  from  English  History,"  pp.  399-400. 

2.  Select  one  of  the  following  men  for  special  study  and  report. 
Be  ready  to  give  a  brief  account  of  his  life  and  of  the   work  for 
which    he    is    remembered :     Samuel    Slater,    Eli   Whitney,    Elias 
Howe,    Robert    Fulton,    Cyrus    McCormick,    De  Witt    Clinton, 
S.  F.  B.  Morse. 

Something  regarding  each  of  these  men  and  their  work  will  be 
found  in  the  following  books ;  refer  to  the  index  or  table  of 
contents  in  each  case:  Mowry's  "American  Inventions  and 
Inventors,"  Southworth's  "Builders  of  Our  Country,"  Book  II. 
Also  see,  for  Fulton,  Sutcliffe's  "  Robert  Fulton,"  or  Elson's 
"Side-Lights  on  American  History,"  vol.  i,  ch.  v,  and  for  Morse, 
Bolton's  "  Famous  Men  of  Science,"  pp.  202-245. 

3.  Imagine  yourself  a  passenger  on  an  Erie  Canal  "packet" 
about  1830.     Tell  the  story  of  your  trip. 

See  Hart's  "How  Our  Grandfathers  Lived,"  pp.  102-104. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

GREAT  CHANGES    IN   AMERICAN    LIFE    BROUGHT   ABOUT 
BY  THE  INDUSTRIAL   REVOLUTION 

The  marvelous  inventions  which  we  have  just  described 
radically  altered  the  daily  life  of  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  —  their  ways  of  thinking,  working,  traveling,  buy 
ing,  selling,  and  making  a  livelihood.  The  new  machines 
did  more  than  anything  else  to  revolutionize  the  country; 
more  than  all  the  political  events  —  elections  and  contests 
of  political  parties  —  combined. 

Cheap  land  had  created  in  the  United  States  the  largest 
independent  farming  class  any  country  in  the  world  had 
ever  seen.  This  accounted,  in  the  main,  for  the  freedom 
and  democracy  so  proudly  proclaimed  by  American  states 
men.  The  great  inventions  created  here,  as  in  Europe, 
millions  of  industrial  workers  and  city  dwellers  and  so 
brought  to  this  country  the  same  problems.  One  can  truly 
say  that  the  steam  engine  makes  the  whole  world  kin. 

I.    CHANGES  IN  WORKING  CONDITIONS 

The  Division  of  Labor.  --When  manufacturing  was  done 
by  hand,  each  worker  performed  many  different  operations. 
Take  for  example  the  old  textile  industry.  The  same  worker 
could  usually  card,  spin,  weave,  and  dye;  that  is,  could 
produce  a  complete  piece  of  cloth  from  raw  materials. 
With  the  coming  of  machinery,  each  worker  had  to 
specialize  on  one  minute  operation,  such  as  watching  the 

312 


GREAT  CHANGES   IN  AMERICAN  LIFE 


313 


carding  machine  or  the  spinning  jenny  or  the  loom.  The 
artisan  skilled  in  an  entire  trade  was  then  supplanted  by 
the  specialist,  who  was  very  swift  in  his  craft  but  helpless 
when  put  at  some  other  machine. 

Another  result  of  the  division  of  labor  was  the  linking 
of  many  communities.  In  early  times  each  farm  or  town 
produced  nearly  all  that  it 
consumed.  After  the  indus 
trial  revolution  towns,  like  in 
dividuals,  began  to  specialize 
—  some  producing  hardware, 
others  cloth,  others  boots 
and  shoes.  Each  special  man 
ufacturing  town  was  then  forced 
to  depend  on  others  for  the 
commodities  which  it  did  not 
produce.  This  stimulated  rapid 
transportation  and  communi 
cation,  and  made  great  cities 
possible.  It  also  made  the 

town  helpless  in  time  of  depression,  when  the  industries 
upon  which  its  prosperity  depended  were  shut  down. 

The  Separation  of  the  Workers  from  Their  Tools.  —  In 
the  old  days,  when  work  was  done  by  hand  and  only  a  few 
simple  and  inexpensive  tools  were  used,  each  workman 
who  had  any  initiative  could  go  into  business  for  himself 
after  he  had  served  his  apprenticeship  ;  that  is,  when  he 
had  learned  his  trade.  Each  man  therefore  could  become 
his  own  master.  He  could  own  and  control  the  tools  by 
which  he  earned  his  livelihood,  for  it  did  not  require  much 
capital  for  him  to  set  up  a  loom  house,  shoeshop,  or  smithy, 
or  to  go  into  business  on  his  own  account,  particularly  with 
the  aid  of  his  wife  and  children. 

After  the  introduction  of  expensive  machinery,  however, 


By  courtesy  of  Manhattan  Trade  School 

PUTTING  THE  THUMB  IN  A  GLOVE, 
ONE  OF  THE  MANY  STEPS  IN  THE 
PROCESS  OF  MAKING  A  GLOVE 


314        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

and  the  use  of  the  steam  engine  to  drive  hundreds  and  even 
thousands  of  machines  at  the  same  time,  it  became  impos 
sible  for  every  workman  to  become  a  factory  owner.  The 
steam  engine,  according  to  an  old  saying,  was  a  great 


HHR 


>ilifr.~:4*,"tjV  // "        r   -~?      •'      '/   ^,\3*»-   ;      1  -\  \    M 


From  a  photograph 

THE  SPINNING  ROOM  IN  A  MODERN  COTTON  MILL 

monster  which  ate  up  the  tools  of  the  handworker  and 
made  him  a  servant  to  the  machine.  In  this  way,  those 
engaged  in  industry  became  divided  into  two  classes :  the 
relatively  few  owners  of  the  machines,  that  is,  capitalists ; 
and  the  great  mass  of  operatives  who  worked  at  the  machines. 


GREAT   CHANGES   IN  AMERICAN  LIFE  315 

When  the  working  people  owned  their  tools,  there  could  be 
no  quarrel  over  the  division  of  the  income  received ;  but 
when  one  man  owned  the  machines  and  others  operated 
them,  a  natural  difference  of  opinion  arose  as  to  how  the 
money  received  for  the  total  product  should  be  divided. 
Thus  arose  the  conflict  between  capital  and  labor --the 
wage  question. 

Women  in  Factories.  The  Labor  Supply. --The  effect 
of  the  new  inventions  on  the  life  and  labor  of  women 
was  even  greater  than  on  the  life  and  labor  of  men. 
Women  had  long  been  accustomed  to  hard  work;  in  the 
colonial  times  they  had  done  much  of  the  manufacturing  — 
practically  all  of  the  textile  making :  spinning,  weaving, 
knitting,  lace  making,  and  sewing.  With  the  coming  of 
machinery,  factory  owners  looked  to  them  as  an  important 
source  of  labor  supply,  particularly  in  the  textile  regions  of 
New  England.  To  allay  the  fears  of  the  farmers,  who 
did  not  want  to  lose  their  "  hired  men,"  it  was  widely  ad 
vertised  that  a  large  share  of  the  new  manufacturing 
would  be  done  by  American  women.  Without  their  help 
the  textile  industries  of  New  England  could  not  have 
flourished,  for  it  was  not  until  after  1850  that  European 
immigration  began  to  be  the  chief  source  of  the  labor 
supply. 

New  Spheres  for  Women.  --  When  women  stepped  from 
the  spinning  wheel  at  home  to  the  spinning  jenny  in  the 
mill,  they  did  not  enter  a  new  field  of  work ;  but  as  the 
variety  of  machine  industries  multiplied  they  were  drawn 
into  new  branches.  Manufacturers  finding  it  profitable  to 
employ  women  discovered  reasons  for  widening  "  woman's 
sphere."  Between  1820  and  1840  more  than  one  hundred 
different  industrial  occupations  were  opened  to  women,  in 
cluding  many  new  trades  where  skill  rather  than  muscular 
strength  was  required.  Take,  for  example,  boot  and  shoe 


316        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

making.  This  was  from  earliest  times  a  man's  trade. 
When  the  inventors  invaded  the  industry  and  even  the 
heaviest  nailing  and  sewing  were  done  by  machines,  thou 
sands  of  women  were  drawn  into  boot  and  shoe  making. 

When  once  the  old  view  of  their  sphere  was  abandoned, 
women  went  into  stores  and  offices  as  well  as  mills.  In 
1858  the  New  York  Times  urged  more  women  to  take  up 
"  clerking "  because  they  were  specially  fitted  for  that 
work. 

Industries  and  the  Home.  --While  spinning,  weaving, 
and  dyeing  were  done  by  hand,  women  were  generally 
at  home  even  while  working.  The  factory  system  took 
their  work  away  from  the  fireside,  and  the  women  had  to 
follow  it  into  the  great  buildings  where  the  machinery  was 
operated.  Thus  women  went  out  into  the  big  world  to 
labor  with  men,  in  the  same  factories,  for  the  same  hours, 
and  under  the  same  dangers  to  life  and  health. 

Often  the  family  was  scattered  about  the  city,  the  father 
working  at  one  factory,  the  mother  at  another,  and  perhaps 
the  children  at  a  third.  The  result  was  a  change  in  home  life 
that  completely  upset  the  old  idea  of  the  family,  according 
to  which  the  work  and  life  of  the  mother  and  children  were 
restricted  to  the  homestead.  Sometimes  women  found 
themselves  in  sharp  competition  with  men  for  jobs. 

Child  Labor.  —  Besides  women,  boys  and  girls  were  an 
important  source  of  early  labor  supply.  Tens  of  thou 
sands  of  them  were  driven  by  poverty  into  the  industries. 
They  kept  the  mills  going.  Selfish  parents,  too,  seeing  a 
chance  to  add  to  the  family  income,  put  their  little  ones  at 
work  in  the  mills  when  it  was  not  really  necessary.  Even 
the  great  statesman,  Hamilton,  thought  it  one  of  the  ex 
cellent  features  of  the  factory  system  that  "  children  of 
tender  years  "  could  be  so  employed.  Mill  owners,  finding 
their  labor  cheap,  approved  the  idea. 


GREAT  CHANGES   IN  AMERICAN  LIFE  317 

Children  had  long  been  accustomed  to  hard  work  on  the 
farms  and  in  the  homes,  and  labor  was  nothing  new  to  them. 
The  thing  that  was  new  was  labor  in  the  factories,  where 
they  could  not  have  the  superintending  care  of  their  fathers 
and  mothers.  Their  hours  of  labor  and  their  health  were 
no  longer  matters  readily  arranged  by  their  parents.  The 
wheels  of  the  mills  turned  from  early  morning  till  late  at 
night,  and  children  who  expected  to  hold  their  positions 
had  to  be  in  their  places.  So  in  the  long  annals  of  toil 
there  must  be  a  chapter  for  the  children. 

New  Labor  Supplies.  —  European  Immigration.  The 
Irish.  —  With  the  growth  of  factories  and  cities  and  the 
undertaking  of  canal  and  railway  construction,  the  demand 
for  workers  increased,  ani,  in  response,  an  army  of  immi 
grants  began  to  invade  America.  First  in  importance 
before  1860  were  the  Irish.  The  people  of  Ireland  were 
unhappy  under  the  rule  of  the  English  government.  Al 
though  they  were  Catholic  in  faith,  they  were  forced  to 
pay  taxes  to  support  the  Protestant  Church.  Vast  sec 
tions  of  the  country  were  owned  by  landlords  who  lived  in 
England  and  drew  princely  revenues  from  distant  estates 
tilled  by  half-starving  peasants.  The  Irish  were  ruled  by 
the  parliament  which  sat  at  London,  while  they  wanted 
home  rule  —  a  parliament  of  their  own. 

In  1846,  the  potato  crop,  on  which  from  one  third  to 
one  half  of  the  population  depended,  was  almost  a  total 
failure,  and  more  than  a  third  of  the  people  were  thrown 
upon  charity,  while  thousands  perished  of  starvation.  Before 
the  famine  was  over,  two  millions  had  died  or  left  Ireland 
and  tens  of  thousands  had  sought  homes  in  America.  In 
1850  the  census  recorded  nearly  a  million  Irish  people  in 
the  United  States. 

The  German  Tide  of  Immigration. — Next  in  order  were 
the  Germans.  They,  too,  had  suffered  from  oppressive 


3i8        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

government,  and  the  same  year  that  saw  the  failure  of  the 
potato  crop  in  Ireland  brought  similar  disasters  on  the  con 
tinent,  particularly  in  the  Rhine  Valley  and  southern  Ger 
many.  In  1848  a  revolution  against  the  despotic  govern 
ment  of  kings  and  princes  broke  out  in  many  places  in 
Germany,  and  attempts  were  made  to  establish  governments 
by  the  people.  Most  of  these  popular  efforts  came  to 
naught,  and  the  rulers  imprisoned,  shot,  or  banished  revolu 
tionary  leaders. 

Germans,  in  great'  numbers,  found  their  way  across  the 
Atlantic,  among  them  many  men  of  distinction,  like  Carl 
Schurz.  In  1847  over  fifty  thousand  of  them  landed  in 
New  York,  and  the  number  increased  almost  steadily  for 
several  years.  In  1850  the  four  states  of  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Michigan,  and  Iowa,  had  nearly  a  hundred  thousand  German 
inhabitants.  Unlike  the  Irish,  most  of  whom  settled  near 
the  eastern  coast,  the  Germans  scattered  westward.  Al 
though  many  of  them  stopped  at  Chicago  and  Milwaukee, 
perhaps  a  majority  of  the  early  immigrants  found  homes  be 
side  American  pioneers  as  independent  farmers. 

The  Foreign-born  Population  of  1860.  —  From  many  other 
countries  across  the  sea,  as  well  as  Ireland  and  Germany, 
immigrants  began  to  come.  In  1860  there  were  over 
4,000,000  foreign  born  in  the  United  States,  most  of  whom 
had  migrated  within  the  preceding  ten  years. 

II.   THE  LABOR  MOVEMENT 

The  Wage  System. — As  the  army  of  working  people  grew 
to  huge  proportions  there  arose  many  grievances.  The 
hours  of  labor  were  long,  usually  from  sunrise  to  sunset, 
thus  leaving  no  time  or  strength  for  anything  else.  If 
an  employer  failed  in  business,  the  employees  lost  any 
wages  due  them,  for  they  had  no  claim  upon  his  property. 


GREAT  CHANGES   IN  AMERICAN  LIFE  319 

Wages  were  not  always  paid  weekly,  or  even  monthly, 
and  frequently  they  were  paid  in  paper  money  of  uncertain 
value,  or  "  store  orders  "  which  could  only  be  cashed  at 
the  stores  at  a  heavy  discount.  In  all  states,  working 
people  were  liable  to  fine  and  imprisonment  if  they  com 
bined  and  struck,  or  even  formed  a  union,  for  the  purpose 
of  increasing  their  pay  or  shortening  their  hours. 

The  Low  Wages  of  Unskilled  Labor. — Wages  were  often 
very  low.  According  to  a  learned  historian,  the  ordinary 
laborer,  such  as  a  wood-cutter  or  hod-carrier,  was  fortunate 
to  find  employment  for  twelve  hours  a  day  at  seventy-five 
cents.  Large  numbers  were  glad  to  work  for  thirty-seven 
and  even  twenty-five  cents  a  day  in  winter;  in  fact,  in  very 
hard  times,  there  were  always  hundreds  ready  to  work  for 
their  board  and  lodging  during  the  cold  season.  On  the 
canals  and  turnpikes  fifteen  dollars  a  month  with  board  and 
lodging  was  regular  pay  for  summer,  and  in  winter  the 
amount  of  money  paid  was  cut  down  to  five  dollars  a  month. 

The  wages  of  women  were  still  lower.  Many  of  the 
trades  were  closed  to  them.  Unskilled  women  found 
work  at  sewing  rags,  folding  and  stitching  books,  and 
making  shirts.  Mothers  and  widows  generally  engaged  in 
shirt  making,  because  they  could  take  the  goods  home. 
This  labor  was  poorly  paid.  A  good  seamstress  seems  to 
have  made  ninety  cents  a  week,  and  fifty  cents  a  week 
appears  to  have  been  the  average.1  Under  such  conditions, 
poverty  and  pitiful  distress  appeared  everywhere  in  the 
great  cities. 

Labor  Organizes  for  Self-protection.  Rise  of  Industrial 
Democracy. — Working  people  and  their  sympathizers  set 
to  work  in  earnest  to  remedy  some  of  these  evils.  About 
1825  they  began  to  form  labor  unions  in  spite  of  the  law 
against  it.  The  women  weavers  and  cotton  workers  in  New 

1  Of  course  the  cost  of  living  was  much  lower  than  at  the  present  time. 


320         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

England  organized  societies  and  demanded  shorter  hours 
and  better  pay.  The  machinists  of  Philadelphia  began  an 
agitation  for  a  ten-hour  day,  and  the  New  York  ship  car 
penters  followed  their  example.  In  Philadelphia  a  large 
number  of  workingmen  decided,  in  1828,  to  form  a  political 
party  of  their  own  and  to  vote  only  for  candidates  who 
promised  to  support  the  demands  of  "  the  working  classes." 
Two  years  later  the  workingmen  of  Albany,  New  York, 
organized  a  party  and  carried  four  out  of  the  five  wards  in 
the  city.  In  all  large  towns,  newspapers  were  founded  to 
advocate  the  rights  of  workingmen. 

The  Federation  of  Labor  Unions. --The  first  organiza 
tions  of  workingmen  were  local  in  character.  When  rail 
ways  were  built  and  travel  became  easy  and  cheap,  they 
began  to  form  national  federations  or  unions  of  local 
unions.  The  printers  federated  in  1852,  the  hat  finishers  in 
1854,  the  iron  workers  in  1858,  and  the  machinists  in  1859. 
The  aim  was  to  unite  all  the  members  of  a  given  trade 
throughout  the  country.  Strikes  often  followed  organization. 

Early  Leaders  of  the  Labor  Movement.  —  Agitators  and 
lecturers  went  up  and  down  the  country  talking  about  the 
problems  of  the  workers.  Among  these  was  an  earnest 
woman,  Frances  Wright,  who  came  to  the  United  States 
from  Scotland,  and  became  one  of  the  first  advocates  of 
"  the  rights  of  the  working  men  and  women  "  in  this 
country.  She  lectured  on  labor  questions,  advocating  shorter 
hours,  higher  wages,  better  homes  for  working  people, 
and  many  other  reforms.  She  was  mobbed  in  some  cities 
for  her  audacity  in  talking  in  public,  and  in  others  was 
refused  the  right  to  speak  —  so  horrified  were  the  people  at 
the  thought  of  a  woman  lecturer.  Nevertheless  her  ideas 
took  root  and  in  many  places  "  Fanny  Wright  Societies  " 
were  formed  to  advance  the  interests  of  the  working 
people. 


GREAT  CHANGES   IN  AMERICAN  LIFE  321 

Another  reformer,  Robert  Dale  Owen,  a  famous  Eng 
lishman  who  settled  in  Indiana,  advocated  the  same  ideas. 
He  wrote  a  pamphlet  on  "national  education  "  favoring  a  sys 
tem  of  free  common  schools  very  much  on  the  order  of  those 
now  existing  all  over  the  country.  He,  too,  was  regarded 
generally  as  an  undesirable  person.  Many  of  the  workers 
did  not  appreciate  his  interest  in  them.  A  committee  of 
New  York  printers  declared  that  it  was  insolent  for  a 
foreigner  to  tell  the  people  of  the  United  States  how  to  run 
their  own  affairs. 

Competition  between  Native  and  Foreign  Labor.  -  -  The 
coming  of  foreigners  who  had  been  accustomed  to  work  for 
wages  even  lower  than  those  prevailing  in  the  United  States 
was  regarded  with  misgivings  by  native  Americans.  In 
New  England,  the  daughters  of  farmers  were  driven  out  of 
the  mills  by  men  and  women  from  the  Old  World.  Every 
where  the  Irish  took  over  the  work  of  building  roads,  dig 
ging  ditches,  and  draining  swamps,  and  the  common  labor 
which  had  hitherto  been  performed  by  American  working- 
men. 

When  manhood  suffrage  was  established  and  persons  of 
foreign  birth  began  to  take  part  in  politics,  the  natives  were 
even  more  alarmed,  especially  as  the  newcomers  were 
mostly  Catholic  in  religion.  So  great  did  this  alarm  be 
come  that  a  "  Native  American  "  party  was  formed  and 
in  1856  it  nominated  a  candidate  for  President.  Among 
other  things  it  proposed  the  exclusion  of  foreign-born  citi 
zens  from  public  offices.  This  party  was  popularly  known 
as  the  "  JCnjQW-Nothing "  party,  because  its  meetings  were 
secret  and  its  members,  when  questioned  as  to  their  aims, 
always  replied  that  they  did  not  know.  It  adopted  the 
slogan,  "  Americans  must  rule  America,"  and  declared  that 
no  alien  should  be  admitted  to  citizenship  until  he  had  re 
sided  in  the  United  States  continuously  for  twenty-one  years. 


322        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

III.   THE   GROWTH  OF  CITIES;    FOREIGN  TRADE;    CONDI 
TIONS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

The  Rapid  Growth  of  the  Cities.  —  All  over  New  England, 
manufacturing  towns  like  Lowell,  Brockton,  and  Providence 
grew  like  magic.  The  older  cities  flourished,  too.  In  1840 
the  five  first  cities  of  the  country  in  order  of  their  impor 
tance  were  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Washington, 
and  Boston.  The  first  of  these  boasted  over  three  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants ;  the  last  ninety-three  thousand. 

To  the  westward  new  towns  were  springing  up.  Buffalo 
was  the  gateway  through  which  flowed  the  westward  migra 
tion  —  twelve  hundred  people  a  day,  it  was  reported  in 
1835  —  and  also  the  western  products  on  their  way  to  the 
eastern  markets.  In  1850  Buffalo  had  a  population  of 
forty-two  thousand. 

On  low,  marshy  land  along  Lake  Michigan,  the  village 
of  Chicago  was  growing  into  a  lively  trading  center.  In 
1840  there  were  five  thousand  inhabitants  dwelling  in  rough 
wooden  houses  built  along  streets  in  which  weeds  and 
prairie  grass  were  still  growing,  and  which  were  knee-deep 
in  mud  when  it  rained.  Yet  the  signs  of  future  greatness 
were  already  there.  Hundreds  of  ships,  —  sailing  vessels 
and  steamers  —  carried  farm  produce  outward,  and  eastern 
manufactures  inward,  giving  employment  to  large  numbers  of 
sailors,  merchants,  warehousemen,  and  wagoners. 

Detroit  and  Cleveland  were  becoming  important  trading 
centers,  and  to  the  northward  Milwaukee  had  forged  ahead 
so  rapidly  that  her  population  was  half  that  of  Chicago  in 
1840.  The  older  towns,  Cincinnati,  Louisville,  and  St. 
Louis,  continued  to  flourish  as  the  steamboat  trade  on  the 
river  grew  in  size. 

Backward  State  of  City  Government. --With  the  growth 
of  the  cities  came  all  the  troublesome  problems  of  city 


GREAT  CHANGES   IN  AMERICAN  LIFE 


323 


government  —  street  paving,  repair  and  cleaning,  lighting, 
fire  protection,  police,  public  health,  transportation,  hous 
ing,  taxation,  —  to  which  so  much  attention  had  to  be 
given.  Even  when  New  York  was  a  city  of  50,000,  there 
was  no  regular  street  cleaning.  For  fire  protection,  each 
citizen  was  required  to  keep  in  his  front  hall  a  number  of 
buckets,  according  to  the  number  of  his  fireplaces.  When 


— 


From  a  photograph  of  the  original,  owned  by  the  Chicago  Historical  Society 

CHICAGO  IN  1834 

a  fire-alarm  was  rung  he  set  them  on  his  front  door 
step  to  be  carried  ofF  to  the  fire  by  the  first  passer-by. 
The  next  day  he  went  to  the  city  hall  and  got  the  biickets, 
which  he  could  identify  by  his  initials  painted  on  them. 
There  was  no  regular  police  force.  Carters  and  other 
laborers  who  worked  by  day  were  employed  as  night 
watchers.  Sometimes  they  actually  went  home  and  slept 
when  they  should  have  been  patrolling  the  streets.  In 


324         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

1850  a  regular  police  force  was  organized  for  Philadelphia; 
and  three  years  later  a  uniformed  force  was  established 
in  New  York. 

Foreign  Trade.  —  Industrial  progress  prevented  the  people 
of  the  United  States  from  settling  down  to  a  self-satisfied 
life  and  becoming  entirely  indifferent  to  what  was  going 
on  in  the  other  parts  of  the  world.  Instead  of  waiting  at 
home  for  European  ships  to  bring  manufactured  goods 
to  exchange  for  farm  produce,  Americans  began  to  hunt 
abroad  in  Europe  and  Asia  for  markets  in  which  to  sell 
the  output  of  their  own  industries.  In  this  way  they  grew 
interested  in  other  countries.  Thus  the  United  States 
ceased  to  be  a  "  peculiar  "  nation,  and  became  one  of  the 
powers  of  the  world,  searching  like  the  rest  of  them  for 
trade  and  commerce.  It  began  official  relations  with  China 
in  1844,  and  ten  years  later  "gently  coerced  "  Japan  into  a 
treaty  which  opened  that  country  to  western  civilization. 

The  Ideal  of  Progress.  --  With  the  inventions  canie  also 
the  ideal  of  making  constant  progress  instead  of  "  sticking 
to  the  good  old  ways."  When  a  clever  inventor  contrived 
a  new  machine  which  could  make  a  commodity  cheaper 
than  the  old  one,  the  old  one  was  "  scrapped  " ;  that  is, 
abandoned  and  broken  up.  If  one  clever  man  found  a  new 
and  more  profitable  method  of  doing  business,  he  changed  his 
ways  and  the  others  had  to  follow  his  example  or  fall  behind 
in  the  race.  When  boys  and  girls  found  that  they  could 
make  better  wages  in  another  city,  they  "  pulled  up 
stakes,"  and  set  out  from  the  old  home  to  find  a  new  one. 
So  the  old-fashioned  way  of  working  with  grandfather's 
tools  and  grandmother's  utensils  was  cast  aside. 

Instead  of  settling  down  in  the  villages  where  they  were 
born,  people  became  accustomed  to  moving  about.  Villages 
and  families  were  broken  up.  Moreover,  when  people 
from  other  parts  of  the  world,  Scotch,  Irish,  and  Germans, 


GREAT  CHANGES  IN  AMERICAN  LIFE  325 

came  over  in  large  numbers,  there  was  a  commingling  of 
ideas.  Petty  prejudices  against  neighboring  states  or  cities 
or  peoples  were  modified  by  the  constant  intercourse  with 
them. 

The  South  Not  Profoundly  Affected  by  the  Industrial 
Revolution.  -  -  The  most  striking  feature  —  one  full  of 
meaning  for  the  future  —  about  this  great  industrial 
revolution,  this  growth  of  cities,  this  immense  foreign 
immigration,  was  the  restriction  of  industrial  progress 
mainly  to  the  North.  In  1840  New  York  City  had 
more  inhabitants  than  all  the  important  towns  south  of 
Washington  :  Richmond,  Petersburg,  Charleston,  Savannah, 
and  New  Orleans.  The  South  had  water  power  and  im 
mense  natural  mineral  resources,  but  these  were  undevel 
oped.  It  could  have  rivaled  Pennsylvania  in  iron  produc 
tion,  and  New  England  in  cotton  weaving  and  spinning ; 
but  as  long  as  slavery  prevailed,  European  immigrants 
would  not  go  to  the  southern  states  and  capital  would  not 
seek  investments  in  southern  industries. 

Moreover,  tens  of  thousands  of  people  left  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina  and  other  southern  states  to  settle  in 
the  lower  counties  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois.  They 
found  richer  lands  there,  and  were  glad  to  escape  from 
regions  where  the  non-slave-owner  was  held  in  con 
tempt  by  the  aristocracy  of  masters  and  where  he  had 
little  chance  to  rise  out  of  poverty.  Many  well-to-do 
people,  particularly  the  southern  Quakers,  migrated  to  the 
Middle  West  because  slavery  was  odious  to  them.  While 
slavery  lasted,  the  South  was  destined  to  be  engaged  chiefly 
in  agriculture  and  to  remain  small  in  population  as  com 
pared  with  the  North.  It  was  owing  to  this  difference 
in  industrial  and  agricultural  interests  that  such  serious 
friction  sprang  up  between  the  two  sections,  and  led  finally 
to  the  Civil  War. 


326        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

Looking  Forward.  —  In  a  preceding  chapter  we  tried  to 
draw  a  picture  of  the  romance  of  westward  migration,  - 
a  restless  movement  of  fur  hunters,  miners,  cattle  rangers, 
plainsmen,  pioneers,  and  farmers,  —  that  conquered  and 
occupied  the  great  West.  Now  we  must  try  to  picture 
to  ourselves  the  work  of  the  new  classes  created  by  the 
industrial  revolution  —  business  men,  inventors,  captains 
of  industry,  railway  magnates,  real  estate  speculators,  and 
capitalists  —  hurrying  to  improve  every  kind  of  machine, 
establishing  banks  and  raising  money  for  industrial  and 
railway  enterprises,  building  up  factories,  constructing  rail 
way  lines  through  forests  and  over  mountains.  Under 
their  daring  leadership  great  cities  were  built,  the  back 
ward  and  waste  places  of  the  country  made  accessible, 
forests  cut  down,  mines  and  oil  wells  opened,  —  indeed, 
the  very  face  of  the  earth  transformed.  Under  their  direc 
tion  were  massed  huge  armies  of  wage  workers,  who  slowly 
organized  a  labor  movement  and  commenced  to  demand  a 
voice  in  the  control  of  industry  and  society. 

Adding  the  business  men  and  the  industrial  workers  to 
the  free  farmers  and  the  planters,  we  have  the  four  im 
portant  groups  that  were  to  influence  the  current  of  Ameri 
can  political  history  for  many  generations.  All  these  groups 
were  continually  striving  to  advance  their  respective  inter 
ests.  The  work  of  government  thus  became  largely  the 
task  of  adjusting  the  conflicts  among  them,  and  preventing 
any  one  group  from  going  too  far.  At  the  same  time  there 
was  the  task  of  welding  them  all  into  a  nation,  with  high 
ideals  of  liberty  and  humanity,  striving  to  secure  and  main 
tain  a  place  among  the  powers  of  the  earth. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

VI.  'I.    What  is  meant  by  the  "division  of  labor"?     Illustrate 
by  comparing  the  older  method  of  making  such  things  as  cloth 


GREAT  CHANGES   IN  AMERICAN  LIFE  327 

and  shoes  with  the  modern  factory  methods.  V  2.  What  was  the 
effect  of  the  division  of  labor  upon  the  worker  ?  How  did  the 
division  of  labor  influence  the  growth  of  towns  and  cities?  3. 
How  did  the  division  of  labor  and  the  introduction  of  factory 
methods  " separate  the  workman  from  his  tools"  ?  How  did  it 
give  rise  to  the  division  between  "capital"  and  "labor"  ?  4. 
Why  was  it  possible  under  the  new  factory  conditions  for  so  much 
of  the  work  in  the  factories  to  be  done  by  women  and  children  ? 
What  differences  did  this  bring  about  in  home  life  ?  5.  How 
did  the  industrial  revolution  and  the  development  of  the  factory 
system  lead  to  a  large  immigration  of  European  workmen  ? 
6.  Why  did  so  many  of  these  come  from  Ireland  ?  -  7.  What 
were  the  causes  of  the  immigration  from  Germany  ?  8.  Chiefly 
in  what  parts  of  the  country  did  each  of  these  groups  of  im 
migrants  settle  ? 

H.^xf.    What  were  some  of  the  hardships  of  the  wage-earners 
before  1860?       2.    At  what  time  did  the  wage-earners  begin   to  \ 
organize  for  self-protection  ?       3.    Who  were  some  of  the  leaders 
of  the  labor  movement   at  this  time?         4.    What  is  meant   by 
a  "federation"  of  wage-earners  ? 

III.  i.  What  effect  did  the  industrial  revolution  have  upon 
the  growth  of  cities  ?  '  2.  Name  some  of  the  new  problems  that 
the  rapid  growth  of  cities  brought  about.  3.  How  did  the  de 
velopment  of  the  factories  influence  commerce  with  other  coun 
tries  ?  4.  Why  were  the  southern  states  so  little  affected  by 
the  industrial  revolution  ? 


PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Imagine  yourself  a  member  of  a  large  family  engaged  in 
home-manufacturing    before    the    days    of    the    factory  system. 
Imagine  yourself  a  member  of  a  similar  family  working  in  a  factory. 
What  would  be  the  difference  in  the  interest  that  you  would  take 
in  your  work  ?     In  the  pride  that  you  would  take  in  the  excellence 
of  the  product  ?     In  your  knowledge  of  the  complete  process    of 
manufacture  ?     In  your  feelings  toward  your  fellow-workers  ?     In 
the  kinds  of  pleasures  that  you  would  seek  in   your  free  hours  ? 

2.  Find  out   the   main    facts    about  the  effect  of   the   indus 
trial  revolution  in  England.      See  Warren's  "  Stories  from   Eng 
lish  History,"  pp.  393-411, 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  GROWTH  OF  POLITICAL  DEMOCRACY  IN  THE 
UNITED   STATES 

Everywhere  in  the  United  States  during  the  first  decades 
of  the  nineteenth  century  were  signs  of  a  new  age. 
People  from  the  East  were  rushing  westward  into  the  Mis 
sissippi  Valley.  Immigrants  from  all  the  countries  of  west 
ern  Europe  were  crowding  to  our  shores.  New  states  were 
being  admitted  to  the  Union  one  after  another.  New 
generations  were  elbowing  aside  the  older  people  of  the 
Revolutionary  period  and  their  descendants  who  prided 
themselves  on  being  "  the  real  Americans."  New  ques 
tions  were  being  debated.  New  problems  —  growing  out 
of  the  rise  of  cities,  the  building  of  railways,  the  increase 
in  the  size  of  the  working  classes,  and  the  strife  of  rich  and 
poor  —  were  troubling  those  who  took  an  interest  in  public 
affairs.  The  slow  and  easy-going  ways  of  colonial  times 
were  being  left  behind  just  as  the  landscape  disappears  be 
hind  a  rapidly  moving  express  train. 

I.   THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  THE  RIGHT  TO  VOTE 

The  Principles  of  the  Early  American  Democracy.  - 
Naturally  these  new  ways  of  living,  working,  travel 
ing,  and  thinking  aroused  a  wider  discussion  of  the  prob 
lems  of  government.  It  was  not  long  before  leaders 
questioned  many  of  the  laws  which  had  come  down  from 
the  early  days,  and  to  inquire  whether  the  government  of 

328 


THE  GROWTH  OF   POLITICAL   DEMOCRACY 


329 


the  country  was  really  in  harmony  with  the  ideals  of  liberty 
announced  by  the  Fathers  of  our  Country.  At  the  time  of 
the  Revolution  certain  great  principles  of  liberty  and  de- 


-,     // 

From  an  old  print 

The  elections  in  early  days  were  often  held  in  the  open  air,  and  every  voter  announced 
publicly  the  names  of  his  candidates. 

mocracy  had  been  proclaimed  to  the  world  m  the  Declara 
tion  of  Independence : 

The  taxation  of  those  who  have  no  voice  in  the  govern 
ment  is  tyrannical. 

Governments  derive  their  just  powers  from  the  con 
sent  of  the  governed. 

All  men  are  created  equal. 

All  men  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain 
unalienable  rights,  among  which  are  life,  liberty,  and  the 
pursuit  of  happiness. 


330        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

The  people  have  a  right  to  alter  or  abolish  their  govern 
ments,  and  set  up  new  governments,  if  such  action  is 
necessary  to  secure  their  rights. 

Application  of  the  Principles.  -  -  These  were  great  ideals  ; 
but  they  were  not  strictly  applied  in  the  making  of  our 
first  state  constitutions  and  in  the  founding  of  our  national 
government.  There  were  many  leading  Americans  at  the 
time  of  the  Revolution  who  feared  the  direct  rule  of  the  masses 
of  common  people  as  much  as  they  did  the  rule  of  kings. 

Hamilton  said  that  society  was  divided  into  the  few 
and  the  many — "the  rich  and  well  born,"  and  "the  mass 
of  the  people"  who  seldom  judge  or  determine  rightly. 
Madison  declared  that  the  despotism  of  a  majority  of  the 
people  was  as  much  to  be  feared  in  the  United  States,  as 
that  of  monarchs  in  Europe.  Even  Jefferson,  who  was  re 
garded  as  a  dangerous  radical  by  many  people  in  his  day, 
was  at  first  opposed  to  granting  the  right  to  vote  to  any 
man  who  did  not  own  land ;  and  he  came  to  believe  in  man 
hood  suffrage  only  in  his  later  years.  It  is  not  surprising, 
therefore,  that  the  first  state  constitutions  and  laws,  al 
though  resting  in  theory  upon  "the  consent  of  the  gov 
erned,"  in  fact  excluded  from  the  ballot  a  large  portion  of 
the  men,  to  say  nothing  of  the  women. 

Limitations  on  the  Right  to  Vote.  -  -  The  laws  against  equal 
political  rights  for  men  were  in  the  main  as  follows  : 

1.  In  nearly  all  the  states  a  man  had  to  be  a  property 
owner  or  a  tax-payer  in  order  to  vote. 

2.  In    addition  to    excluding   many  poor  men    from  the 
polls,  the  first  state  constitutions  often  provided  that  only 
wealthy  men  could  hold  office.     Thus,  even  if  people  with 
little   property   voted,    they   could    not    elect   one  of  their 
own  kind  to  office. 

3.  Members    of  certain    religious    sects    were    in    some 
states  excluded  from  public  offices. 


THE  GROWTH  OF   POLITICAL   DEMOCRACY         331 

Agitation  for  Wider  Voting  Privileges.  —  Such  violations 
of  the  doctrines  of  the  Revolution  could  not  stand  long 
unquestioned.  Pamphlet  writers  began  to  appear.  The 
call  for  the  abolition  of  property  and  religious  qualifications 
on  the  right  to  vote  and  hold  office  was  heard  throughout 
the  land.  Petitions  were  prepared  and  signed  by  thousands 
of  people. 

A  Maryland  writer  announced  that  the  time  had  come  to 
open  all  offices  to  all  men,  rich  and  poor  alike.  In  New 
York  state  one  petition  with  seventy  thousand  signatures 
was  laid  before  the  legislature,  asking  for  manhood  suffrage. 
In  Virginia,  where  only  land  owners  ("  freeholders  ")  could 
vote,  the  non-freeholders  petitioned  the  constitutional  con 
vention  of  1829  for  the  "  precious  right  "  of  suffrage'. 

Arguments  in  Favor  of  Suffrage.  -  -  Those  who  advo 
cated  opening  all  offices  and  giving  the  ballot  to  all 
men  based  their  pleas  on  simple  principles  of  humanity 
and  the  Declaration  of  Independence  -  -  "governments 
derive  their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of  the  gov 
erned.  "  They  declared  that  the  poor  man  needed  the 
vote  to  protect  himself  and  to  secure  laws  in  his  favor, 
just  as  manufacturers  secured  protective  tariffs  in  their 
favor.  They  repeated  the  battle  cry  of  the  Revolution : 
1  There  is  no  such  thing  as  '  virtual  representation ;'  "  that 
is,  one  who  has  no  vote  is  not  actually  represented  in  the 
government.  They  denied  that  "  the  rich  and  well  born  " 
had  a  monopoly  of  virtue  or  intelligence.  They  scorned  the 
idea  that  the  poor  were  represented  in  the  government  when 
they  had  no  voice  in  it.  They  concluded  by  saying  that  the 
men  who  were  voteless  were  determined  to  get  the  ballot,  and 
that  it  would  be  the  better  part  of  wisdom  to  give  it  to  them 
without  having  too  much  trouble  about  it.  In  addition 
to  the  movement  for  manhood  suffrage  —  the  right  of 
every  adult  male  to  vote — there  was  another  agitation 


332        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

in   favor   of   having  more   officers   directly  elected    by  the 
voters. 

Arguments  Urged  against  Extending  Suffrage.  —  Every 
where  these  agitations  for  more  democracy  were  condemned 
by  those  who  had  the  privileges  which  others  were  trying  to 
get.  It  was  urged  that  the  new  demands  were  assaults 
on  cherished  American  ideas  of  government  —  attacks  on 
the  wisdom  and  honor  of  the  men  who  framed  the  state 
constitutions.  Arguments  such  as  these  were  constantly 
heard  : 

There  is  no  real  demand  for  manhood  suffrage  —  only  a  few 
noisy  agitators  are  stirring  up  the  matter,  while  most  of  the  people 
are  satisfied  with  things  as  they  are.  We  are  happy  and  pros 
perous  now;  why  make  changes?  Wherever  ideas  of  extreme 
democracy,  such  as  are  proposed,  have  been  tried  in  Europe,  they 
have  failed  and  ruined  the  governments.  The  poor  have  no  inter 
est  or  concern  in  the  government  because  they  have  no  property  at 
stake,  and  Providence  has  decreed  that  there  shall  always  be  poor. 
Workingmen,  if  given  the  right  to  vote,  will  eell  their  vote  to 
their  employers  and  engage  in  politics  for  which  they  are  not  fitted. 
Giving  them  the  right  to  vote  and  hold  office  will  end  in  ruin. 

The  opponents  of  equal  suffrage  for  men  in  the  East 
generally  objected  to  admitting  western  states  to  the  Union 
and  giving  the  men  of  the  nfew  country  a  voice  in  the  federal 
government. 

Popular  Choice  of  Presidential  Electors.  -  -  The  right  to 
choose  presidential  electors  by  popular  vote  was  early 
advocated.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  pro 
vided  that  electors  should  be  chosen  as  the  legislatures 
of  the  states  might  decide.  In  many  cases  the  members 
of  the  legislatures  decided  to  do  the  choosing  themselves, 
often  to  the  dissatisfaction  of  the  voters  at  large.  After 
much  discussion  the  right  of  choosing  electors  was  given 
directly  to  the  voters.  By  1832  every  state  except  one  had 


THE  GROWTH  OF   POLITICAL   DEMOCRACY         333 

established  "  popular  choice  of  presidential  electors."  The 
South  Carolina  legislature  alone  continued  to  choose  them 
itself. 

During  the  first  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century  there 
was  also  some  agitation  for  popular  election  of  United  States 
Senators,  who  were  chosen  by  the  state  legislatures.  An 
amendment  to  the  federal  constitution  was  early  proposed 
in  Congress  for  this  purpose.  It  did  not  receive  any  serious 
attention  until  long  afterward,  and  was  not  adopted  until 


The  Right  to  Vote  Gains  Gradually.  -  -  The  fight  for  man 
hood  suffrage  was  a  long,  hard  battle  in  some  states..  In 
others,  however,  particularly  in  the  West,  it  was  easily 
won.  Kentucky  came  into  the  Union  in  1792  with  a 
provision  for  manhood  suffrage  ;  Tennessee,  in  the  con 
stitution  of  1796,  gave  the  vote  to  every  freeman  who 
had  resided  in  any  county  in  the  state  for  six  months  pre 
ceding  the  election  ;  Ohio,  in  her  first  constitution,  gave 
the  vote  to  freeholders  and  all  others  who  paid  a  state  or 
county  tax,  no  matter  how  small;  Indiana,  in  1816,  gave 
the  ballot  to  every  free  wrhite  male  ;  and  Illinois,  two  years 
later,  followed  the  example  of  Indiana. 

Some  of  the  eastern  states  kept  pace  with  the  West; 
New  Hampshire,  Georgia,  and  Maryland  early  removed 
tax  and  property  qualifications  on  the  right  to  vote. 

Other  states,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island, 
New  York,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  South  Carolina 
clung  with  great  firmness  to  property  qualifications.  New 
York  refused  to  surrender  the  old  system  until  1826.  Vir 
ginia  held  out  until  1850,  and  North  Carolina  gave  up  the 
fight  against  white  manhood  suffrage  in  '1854. 

Dorr's  Rebellion.  —  In  Rhode  Island  the  agitation  for 
manhood  suffrage  broke  out  into  open  violence  and  resist 
ance  to  law.  In  that  state  only  landholders  could  vote. 


334        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

This  meant,  after  the  growth  of  the  factory  towns,  that 
thousands  of  workingmen,  clerks,  teachers,  and  business 
men  who  did  not  hold  land  were  without  a  voice  in 
the  government.  For  many  years  the  non-freeholders 
made  strenuous  efforts  to  get  the  ballot;  but  the  free 
holders  replied  that  their  forefathers  had  established  the 
system  and  they  were  going  to  keep  it. 


- 


DORR'S  REBELLION,  AN  EARLY  STRUGGLE  FOR  THE  RIGHT  TO  VOTE 

ff  In  1841  the  exasperated  non-voters  called  a  convention 
of  their  own,  drafted  a  constitution  giving  themselves  the 
vote,  and  elected  Thomas  Dorr,  a  school-teacher,  as 
governor.  The  regular  government  resisted  the  intruder 
and  both  parties  prepared  for  civil  war.  Bloodshed  was 
avoided,  but  Dorr  and  many  of  his  followers  were  arrested 
and  imprisoned. 

The  next  year  the  conservatives  surrendered  and  granted 
to  practically  all  men  the  right  to  vote  for  state  officers. 
Dorr  from  his  prison  heard  the  shouts  announcing  the  vie- 


THE  GROWTH  OF  POLITICAL   DEMOCRACY         335 

tory ;  later  he  was  released  from  confinement ;  and  the 
decision  of  the  court,  which  had  sent  him  to  jail,  was 
crossed  out  on  the  records.  Connecticut,  frightened  by 
the  conflict  across  the  border,  granted  manhood  suffrage 

in   1845, 

II.   THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  "WOMEN'S  RIGHTS" 

Discriminations  against  Women. — While  all  this  agitation 
about  the  rights  of  man  was  going  on,  women  began  to  in 
quire  about  their  rights.  Women  were  subject  to  all  the 
exclusive  laws  to  which  the  poor  man  objected  and  to 
many  others  besides.  A  woman  could  not  vote  or  hold  office 
(with  some  very  minor  exceptions),  no  matter  how  much 
property  she  owned. 

Women  were  excluded  from  the  colleges,  from  the  pro 
fessions,  such  as  law  and  medicine,  and  from  a  large  number 
of  the  trades  and  business  enterprises.  In  many  states  a 
married  woman  could  not  hold  and  manage  property  in  her 
own  name  at  all.  When  a  married  woman  acquired  property 
or  inherited  it,  her  husband  had  the  right  to  take  over  the 
management  of  the  real  estate,  collect  the  revenues  and 
do  what  he  pleased  with  them.  He  could  claim  as  his  own 
all  her  other  property,  such  as  jewels,  money,  and  wages. 

Women  s  Protest  against  Discriminations.  — •  Many  earnest 
and  thoughtful  women  resented  these  discriminations,  and 
leaders  among  them  began  to  ask  :  Why  should  we  not  have 
the  right  to  control  our  own  property  and  wages  ?  Why 
should  we  not  have  opportunities  to  obtain  even  the  highest 
education  possible  ?  Why  should  we  be  excluded  from  the 
professions  —  law,  medicine,  and  the  ministry  ?  Why 
should  we  be  denied  all  voice  in  the  government  —  the 
political  right  claimed  for  every  white  man,  rich  and  poor, 
good  and  bad,  educated  and  ignorant  ? 

At  first   the  protest  was   made  privately ;    then   it   grew 


336        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

louder  and  louder;  finally  it  was  taken  up  by  the  news 
papers  and  on  the  public  platform.  In  1825,  when  man 
hood  suffrage  was  being  demanded  in  New  York  and  near-by 
states,  Frances  Wright  made  a  plea  that  suffrage  should 
be  made  "  universal." 

Ridicule  Poured  on  Women  s  Rights.  —  All  these  activities 
in  behalf  of  "  women's  rights  "  were  laughed  at.  Con 
servative  people  were  shocked  at  hearing  women  speak  in 
public.  It  was  said  that  it  would  break  up  the  home  if  a 
married  woman  was  entitled  to  hold  her  own  property  and 
keep  the  money  she  earned  instead  of  turning  it  all  over  to 
her  husband,  or  if  she  was  given  the  vote. 

All  the  arguments  which  had  been  advanced  against 
giving  equal  suffrage  to  men  were  advanced  against  giving 
the  ballot  to  women. 

The  First  Women  s  Rights  Convention.  —  Ridicule,  of 
course,  did  not  stop  the  agitation.  In  1848,  on  the  call' of 
Lucretia  Mott,  Martha  C.  Wright,  Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton, 
and  Mary  Ann  McClintock,  a  women's  rights  convention, 
the  first  in  the  United  States,  was  held  at  Seneca  Falls,  New 
York.  The  convention  issued  an  important  "declaration  of 
rights/'  The  newspapers  made  great  sport  of  both  the 
convention  and  the  declaration,  saying  that  the  "  Reign 
of  Petticoats  "  was  now  announced.  Undisturbed  by  the  fact 
that  they  were  stoned,  insulted,  and  jailed,  women  kept 
up  their  agitation. 

Rapid  Gains  of  the  Suffrage  Movement.  —  The  new  move 
ment  gained  steadily  in  numbers  and  in  strength.  It  won 
the  support  of  the  ablest  women  in  the  country ;  including 
Margaret  Fuller,  a  well-known  journalist  and  lecturer  of 
Massachusetts,  and  Lucy  Stone,  of  Oberlin,  the  first  woman 
college  graduate  in  the  United  States.  In  1851  Susan  B. 
Anthony  became  a  conspicuous  leader  and  began  her  fifty- 
four-year  campaign  for  woman  suffrage. 


THE   GROWTH  OF   POLITICAL   DEMOCRACY         337 

Prominent  men  began  to  help.  The  great  anti-slavery 
agitators,  William  Lloyd  Garrison  and  Wendell  Phillips, 
spoke  for  the  women.  Emerson,  Whittier,  and  other  New 
England  writers  endorsed  their  demands.  Far  in  the 
West,  Abraham  .Lincoln  early  approved  the  principle  of 
sharing  the  government  with  those  who  carried  its  burdens. 
"  by  no  means  excluding  the  women."  Suffrage  conven 
tions  were  held  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Indiana,  and 
in  1850  a  national  convention  attended  by  delegates  from 
nine  states  was  held  and  a  national  committee  established. 

Woman  Suffrage  and  the  Slavery  Agitation.  --  The  suffrage 
agitation  was  making  rapid  progress  when  the  struggle  over 
slavery  and  the  Union  came  like  a  dreadful  storm  overshadow 
ing  everything  else.  The  leaders  in  the  suffrage  movement, 
basing  their  claims  on  the  fine  principles  laid  down  in  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  believed  in  liberty  for  all ; 
naturally  they  aided  the  abolitionists  in  the  attack  on 
slavery.  They  hoped  that  freedom,  when  it  came,  would 
bring  universal  suffrage.  They  were  doomed  to  disappoint 
ment.  They  saw  the  slave  emancipated  and  the  ballot  thrust 
into  his  hands,  and  were  told  that  they  must  wait. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.    State  the  five  principles  of  liberty  that  were  laid  down 
in  the  Declaration  of  Independence.       2.    In  most  of  the  states 
what  classes  were  denied  the  right  to  vote  in  the  early  days  of 
the  federal  government  ?       What  people  could  not  hold    office  ? 
3.    What  were   the    chief   arguments   in    favor   of  extending   the 
privilege  of  voting  ?       Against   this  ?       4.    How  did   the   Consti 
tution  provide  for  the  choice  of  presidential  electors  ?       How  are 
presidential  electors  chosen  in  all  the  states  to-day?      5.     What 
was  "Dorr's  Rebellion  "  ?       Why  was  it  important  ? 

II.  I.    Name  some  of  the  rights  that  were  denied  to  women   in 
the  early  days  of  the  federal  government.       2.    Who  were  some  of 
the   important   leaders   in    the    "Women's    Rights"    movement? 
3.    In  what  way  was  the  movement  opposed  ? 


338        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  The  following  restrictions  on  the  right  of  suffrage  have  been 
from  time  to  time  applied  or  suggested.      Arrange  these  in  the 
order  of  their  injustice,  placing  first  the  restriction  that  seems 
least  reasonable,  and  so  on;   be  ready  to  defend  your  judgment  in 
each  case : 

Only  those  should  be  allowed  to  vote  who  can  read  and  write 
the  English  language. 

Only  those  should  be  allowed  to  vote  who  own  land  or  other  real 
estate. 

Only  those  should  be  allowed  to  vote  who  belong  to  a  particular 
church  or  hold  a  particular  religious  belief. 

Only  those  should  be  allowed  to  vote  who  have  reached  the  age 
of  twenty-one. 

Only  those  should  be  allowed  to  vote  who  have  not  been  con 
victed  of  some  crime. 

Only  those  should  be  allowed  to  vote  who  are  either  native- 
born  or  naturalized  citizens  of  the  country. 

Only  those  should  be  allowed  to  vote  who  are  male  citizens  of 
the  country. 

Only  those  should  be  allowed  to  vote  who  have  a  degree  of  educa 
tion  equivalent  to  graduation  from  a  four-year  high  school. 

Only  those  should  be  allowed  to  vote  whose  ancestors  were  among 
the  American  soldiers  in  the  Revolution. 

Only  those  should  be  allowed  to  vote  who  are  of  sound  mind. 

Only  those  should  be  allowed  to  vote  who  are  taxpayers. 

Only  those  should  be  allowed  to  vote  who  could  serve  as  soldiers 
in  time  of  war. 

2.  It  has  been  said  that  every  "right"  carries  with  it  a  corre 
sponding  "duty."     If  this  is  true,  what  "duties,"  in  your  opinion, 
go  with  the  right  to  vote  ?     Name  some  conditions  that  might 
justify  a  voter  in  remaining  away  from  the  polls  on  election  day. 
Name  some  excuses,  commonly  made,  that  would  be  unjustified. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF   POPULAR   EDUCATION   DURING 
THE   FIRST  HALF  OF  THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY 

With  the  progress  of  the  industrial  revolution,  the  rise  of 
cities,  and  the  growth  of  political  democracy  in  the  United 
States  there  opened  a  new 
era  in  education.  Early 
in  colonial  times  reading 
schools  and  Latin  gram 
mar  schools 
established 
places,  and 


A 


In  ADAM'S  Fall 
We  finned  all. 


Heaven  to  find, 
The  Bible  Mind, 


had  been 
in  many 
some  steps 

had  been  taken  toward 
the  support  of  schools  by 
public  taxation.  Never 
theless,  a  large  part  of 
the  people  (certainly  a 
majority  outside  of  New 
England)  could  neither 
read  nor  write,  while  but 
a  scant  few  were  able  to 
attend  secondary  schools 
and  colleges. 

The  reasons  for  estab 
lishing  schools  and  col 
leges  in  colonial  times  were  religious  rather  than  educational. 
Children  were  taught  to  read  and  write,  not  merely  because 
knowledge  was  a  good  thing  in  itself,  but  in  order  that 

339 


Chria  crucify'd 
For  Tinners  dy'd. 


The  Deluge  drownM 
The  Earth  around. 


E  LI  JAH  hid 
By  Ravens  fed. 


The  judgment  made 
FELIX  afraid. 


From  the  "  New  England  Primer 

A  PAGE  FROM  A  FAMOUS  SCHOOLBOOK 


340        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

they  might  learn  the  doctrines  of  the  churches  to  which 
their  parents  belonged  and  sometimes  the  chief  laws  against 
evil-doers.  The  main  purpose  of  the  colleges  was  to  train 
clergymen  for  the  churches. 


I.   THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  FREE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Lower  Schools  Removed  from  Religious  Control.  --  Perhaps 
the  most  striking  step  in  the  educational  movement  of  the 
nineteenth  century  was  the  withdrawal  of  the  schools  from  the 
control  of  religious  denominations.  By  the  opening  of  that 
century  the  old  schools  had  lost  something  of  their  strictly 
religious  character.  Certain  non-religious  or  "  secular  " 
subjects,  like  arithmetic,  history,  and  geography,  had  been 
introduced ;  but  the  schools  were  still  under  the  influence 
of  religious  authorities.  The  rapid  growth  of  sects  in  every 
community,  however,  soon  made  difficult  the  practice  of 
teaching  any  one  religious  doctrine  in  schools  in  any  way 
supported  from  public  funds  or  conducted  under  public 
supervision. 

There  were  three  possible  solutions  of  the  problem  :  each 
church,  if  it  could  raise  the  money,  could  establish  its  own 
school  at  great  expense ;  the  children  could  remain  ignorant 
and  illiterate ;  or  there  could  be  one  school  for  the  teach 
ing  of  "  secular  "  subjects,  leaving  religious  instruction  for 
the  homes  and  the  Sunday  schools. 

Immigration  helped  to  settle  the  matter.  It  was  soon  clear 
that  the  newcomers  would  have  to  be  taught  before  they 
could  be  transformed  into  American  citizens.  In  addi 
tion  to  teaching  the  "  foreigners  "  how  to  read  and  write 
English,  it  was  thought  necessary  to  give  them  some  knowl 
edge  of  the  geography  and  history  of  their  adopted  country. 
For  these  and  other  reasons,  the  strictly  religious  purposes 
which  were  prominent  in  the  schools  in  earlier  times  began  to 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF   POPULAR   EDUCATION     341 

give  way  to  the  "  secular  "  ideals.  This  change  was  well 
started  by  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  its 
influence  spread  slowly. 

The  Development  of  Free  Schools.  Early  Difficulties  in 
the  Way  of  Universal  Education. --When  elementary  edu 
cation  is  really  "  universal,"  that  is,  when  all  children 
between  the  ages  of  six  and  fourteen  are  attending  school, 
large  sums  of  money  must  be  spent  for  school  grounds, 
buildings,  furniture,  and  apparatus,  as  well  as  for  teachers' 
salaries.  Even  those  who  early  recognized  the  need  of 
universal  education  found  their  efforts  therefore  blocked  by 
the  lack  of  money. 

Reliance  on  Charity  for  the  Support  of  Schools.  —  Several 
ways  were  devised  to  pay  the  bills.  In  New  York  and  other 
cities  of  the  middle  states,  the  elementary  schools  for  the 
masses  were  for  a  long  time  supported  entirely  by  philan 
thropy.  Societies  raised  money  for  schools  just  as  they  ob 
tain  gifts  for  orphans'  homes  to-day. 

Indeed,  such  schools  were  often  known  as  "  charity 
schools."  This  naturally  aroused  a  great  deal  of  criticism 
from  those  who  believed  that  education  was  a  right  which 
society  owed  to  all  children.  Workingmen,  who  especially 
objected  to  charity  schools,  had  great  influence  in  bring 
ing  about  a  system  of  free,  tax-supported  elementary 
education. 

Schools  Controlled  by  Religious  Bodies.  --In  other  parts 
of  the  country  where  the  people  as  a  whole  were  slow  to 
adopt  the  principle  of  tax-supported  schools,  the  well-to-do 
churches  tried  to  provide  elementary  education,  either 
free  or  at  a  very  small  cost,  for  the  children  of  the  poor 
of  all  religious  sects.  This  also  had  its  disadvantages. 
Children  attending  such  schools  learned  the  religious  doc 
trines  of  the  denomination  which  furnished  money;  this 
displeased  many  parents.  Often,  too,  the  denominations 


342        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

controlling  these  schools  tried  to  obtain  aid  from  taxation, 
and  this  led  to  bitter  disputes  among  the  different  sects. 

Proposals  for  Providing  Elementary  Education  at  a  Low 
Cost:  the^Lanc  aster- Bell  Monitorial  System.  —  An  ingenious 
method  of  making  a  little  money  go  a  long  way  in  the  work 
of  education  was  borrowed  from  England,  where  it  had 
been  introduced  early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
largest  item  in  the  cost  of  maintaining  schools  is  the  pay 
ment  of  teachers'  salaries.  When  the  demand  for  universal 


A  PUPIL-TEACHER,  OR  MONITOR,  INSPECTING  SLATES  IN  A  MONITORIAL  SCHOOL 

education  became  strong  in  England  (as  it  did  about  this 
time),  two  men, --John  Lancaster  and  Andrew  Bell, — 
thought  out  a  plan  which,  they  believed,  would  reduce  this 
item  to  a  minimum.  They  proposed  to  place  one  mature 
and  well-prepared  teacher  in  charge  of  each  large  school. 
The  first  duty  of  this  teacher  was  to  instruct  a  group  of  the 
older  pupils,  who,  after  they  had  made  some  progress,  were 
placed  in  charge  of  still  younger  pupils.  They  gave  a  part 
of  each  day  to  the  work,  and  continued  their  own  studies 
during  the  remainder  of  the  time.  As  each  group  of  pupils 
came  into  the  higher  classes,  it  took  its  turn  at  teaching  the 
younger  pupils.  In  this  way,  a  never-ending  supply  of  pupil- 
teachers  or  "  monitors  "  could  be  secured  at  little  or  no 
cost  beyond  the  provision  and  maintenance  of  a  schoolhouse 
and  the  payment  of  a  salary  to  a  single  teacher. 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF   POPULAR   EDUCATION     343 

This  plan,  known  as  the  "  Lancaster-Bell  system  "  or  the 
"  monitorial  system,"  was  hailed  in  England  as  the  solution 
of  the  problem  of  universal  education.  Its  introduction  into 
the  schools  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  York  was  felt  at  the 
time  to  be  a  long  step  forward.  It  at  least  afforded  some 
education  for  all  children,  but  it  was  at  best  a  make-shift. 

The  Struggle  for  Tax  Support.  —  Efforts  to  convince  the 
people  that  education  is  properly  a  great  public  enterprise 
which  should  be  liberally  supported  by  public  taxation  were 
indeed  long  and  arduous.  People  of  wealth  who  had  no 
children  asked  why  they  should  be  taxed  for  the  education  of 
other  people's  boys  and  girls.  Yet  the  demand  for  educa 
tion  was  so  strong  that  in  the  end  all  the  northern  states 
passed  laws  compelling  local  communities  to  support  free 
elementary  schools.  By  1850  free  schools  were  general 
throughout  the  North  and  the  Middle  West,  and  in  some  of 
the  states  the  percentage  of  illiterates  in  the  total  population 
was  almost  as  low  as  it  is  to-day. 

The  Leaders  of  the  Free-school  Movement.  Horace 
Mann  and  the  Educational  Revival  in  Massachusetts.  — 
There  are  several  men  and  women  who  should  be  remembered 
and  honored  because  of  the  work  that  they  did  in  firmly  es 
tablishing  the  principle  of  free  schools.  Among  these  leaders, 
Horace  Mann  holds  a  high  place.  As  Secretary  of  the 
Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Education,  he  journeyed  up 
and  down  the  state,  called  the  people  together  in  the  cities, 
the  villages,  and  the  rural  districts,  and  convinced  them 
that  they  must  grant  money  generously  to  support  free  public 
schools.  The  newspapers  carried  the  message  to  other 
states,  and  Mann  was  called  upon  to  lecture  throughout 
the  North  and  the  Middle  West.  He  not  only  pleaded 
with  the  taxpayers  to  be  more  liberal  in  their  support  of 
schools.  He  gathered  the  teachers  together  and  helped 
them  to  organize  institutes  for  their  own  professional  im- 


344        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

provement.  He  urged  with  good  results  the-establishment 
of  state-supported  and  state-controlled  normal  schools  for 
the  training  of  public-school  teachers.  He  also  stimulated 

the  development  of  free  libraries. 

Henry  Barnard.  —  New  England 
produced  another  great  educational 
leader  in  the  person  of  Henry 
Barnard,  who  for  many  years  served 
as  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of 
Education  of  Connecticut.  Bar 
nard  stirred  the  people  to  take  a 
greater  interest  in  their  schools 
and  to  support  education  more 

liberally.      Moreover,     he     brought 
HORACE  MANN  i  i  i  •  11 

to    them,    through    a    journal    that 

he  published,  important  information  about  the  rapid  progress 
of  public  education  in  Europe.  This  was  pure  generosity 
on  Barnard's  part,  for  his  journal,  although  very  influential 
throughout  the  country,  never  repaid  the  cost  of  publica 
tion.  He  supported  it  almost  entirely  from  his  own  funds, 
and  thus  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  modest  fortune. 

De  Witt  Clinton.  --In  the  history  of  the  gradual  building 
up  of  the  free  public  schools,  Governor  De  Witt  Clinton  of 
New  York  also  deserves  a  notable  place.  He  urged  the 
founding  of  free  schools  supported  entirely  by  taxation.  As 
a  result  of  his  efforts,  in  1821  all  towns  in  that  state  were 
ordered  to  support  schools  at  public  expense.  In  1842  other 
leaders  induced  the  state  to  provide  that  the  City  of  New 
York  should  have  a  Board  of  Education,  and  within  a  few 
years  a  system  of  free  public  schools  was  created  there. 

Emma  Willard  and  Mary  Lyon.  --With  Barnard  and 
Mann  there  are  two  women  who  hold  a  high  place  in  the 
record  of  American  educational  progress.  The  first  of  these, 
Mrs.  Emma  Willard,  founded  a  female  seminary  in  Ver- 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF   POPULAR   EDUCATION     345 


mont  as  early  as  1814  and  seven  years  later  opened  her 
famous  seminary  in  Troy,  New  York.  She  wrote  many 
textbooks  for  the  schools,  some  of  which  were  translated  into 
foreign  languages  and  used  abroad.  She  journeyed  far  and 
wide  pleading  the  cause  of  popular  education,  one  year 
traveling  eight  thousand  miles  through  the  southern  states 
addressing  conventions  of  teachers. 

The  second,  Mary  Lyon,  after  a 
long  teaching  experience  in  acade 
mies,  founded  in  1837  at  South 
Hadley,  Massachusetts,  the  Mount 
Holyoke  Female  Seminary,  which 
later  became  Mount  Holyoke  Col 
lege.  This  seminary  won  fame 
everywhere  for  the  high  character 
of  its  teaching  and  did  much  to 
give  standing  to  "  female  "  educa 
tion.  Among  the  many  contribu 
tions  of  Mary  Lyon  was  her  plan  for  plain  and  simple  living 
for  the  students,  which  reduced  the  cost  of  education  and  made 
more  parents  willing  to  make  sacrifices  for  their  daughters. 

Robert  Owen  and  Frances  Wright. — -In  the  history  of  pop 
ular  education  credit  must  also  be  given  to  many  of  the 
leaders  and  friends  of  working  people.  Robert  Owen,  a 
distinguished  Englishman  who  believed  in  the  education 
of  all  the  people  rich  and  poor,  visited  the  United  States 
and  started  hundreds  of  artisans  to  thinking  about  educa 
tion  for  their  children.  Frances  Wright  was  also  a  promi 
nent  leader  in  the  struggle  of  the  laboring  classes  for  free 
schools  in  the  United  States.  In  their  trade  unions  and 
clubs  labor  leaders  supplemented  the  work  of  Barnard, 
Mann,  and  others,  by  demanding  that  legislatures  vote 
the  money  to  carry  out  the  plans  of  the  great  educational 
reformers. 


MARY  LYON 


346        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

The  Work  of  the  Teachers.  —  To  the  names  of  Mann  and 
Barnard  should  really  be  added  those  of  hundreds  and 
thousands  of  public-school  teachers  throughout  the  coun 
try.  Not  all  the  teachers  of  that  day  looked  upon  their 
work  as  a  great  profession  or  sought  to  increase  its  services 
to  the  people ;  but  many  teachers  did  take  this  view,  and 
worked  in  season  and  out  for  better  schools  and  for  laws 
that  would  make  universal  education  a  reality  instead  of  a 
dream.  They  formed  organizations  for  the  improvement 
of  their  work,  sent  delegates  to  plead  the  cause  of  the), 
people's  schools  before  the  legislatures,  and  lost  no  occa 
sion  to  impress  upon  their  own  pupils  the  need  and  the 
value  of  better  education. 

The  Free-school  Movement  in  the  Northwest.  — One  might 
expect  to  find  more  rapid  growth  of  free  schools  in  the  new 
western  states  than  in  the  East,  for  it  will  be  remembered 
that  the  Land  Ordinance  of  1785  had  set  aside  for  the 
support  of  schools  one  section  of  land  in  each  township  of 
the  Northwest  Territory,  besides  making  very  liberal  land 
grants  for  higher  institutions.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
development  of  education  in  these  new  states  was  by 
no  means  rapid.  In  a  great  many  cases  the  value  of 
the  school  lands  was  not  foreseen,  and  instead  of  being 
held  until  they  could  be  sold  at  a  good  price,  they  were 
almost  given  away.  In  other  cases,  they  were  leased 
for  very  long  periods  of  time  at  low  rental.  In  still 
other  cases  (unfortunately  all  too  numerous),  the  funds 
derived  from  the  sale  or  the  lease  of  school  lands 
were  diverted  to  other  purposes.  Sometimes,  indeed,  they 
found  their  way  into  the  pockets  of  private  citizens.  Thus 
one  of  the  most  generous  endowments  ever  made  for  edu 
cational  purposes  fell  far  short  of  giving  to  the  people  its 
largest  possible  benefits  —  and  chiefly  because  the  people 
did  not  take  the  proper  care  of  their  funds. 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF   POPULAR   EDUCATION     347 

And  so,  in  all  the  middle  western  states  as  in  New  Eng 
land,  the  agitation  for  tax  support  had  to  be  carried  on. 
As  in  the  East,  the  people  seemed  sometimes  not  to  care 
very  much  whether  their  children  could  go  to  school  or  not. 
The  "educated  man  "  was  not  popular,  for  the  rough  work 
of  conquering  the  wilderness  seemed  to  demand  brawn  and 
muscle  rather  than  "book-learning"  and  culture.  Although 
the  state  constitution  of  Indiana,  which  went  into  effect 
in  1816,  made  provision  for  a  complete  system  of  public 
schools  and  colleges,  little  was  done  for  thirty  years  to 
carry  out  these  provisions,  and  then  only  after  a  struggle 
like  that  which  Horace  Mann  carried  on  in  Massachusetts. 

That  the  proposals  of  the  Indiana  constitution  were  far 
in  advance  of  the  demands  of  the  Middle  West  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  the  constitution  of  Illinois,  adopted  in  1818, 
contained  not  a  single  word  regarding  education  or  the  estab 
lishment  of  public  schools.  Indeed,  the  elementary  schools 
of  Illinois  were  in  wretched  condition  until  the  middle  of 
the  century,  when  the  wave  of  revival  reached  the  state. 
In  Missouri,  the  revival  did  not  come  until  after  1865. 

Conditions  in  the  South.  -  -  The  South  did  little  to 
encourage  free  schools  before  that  date,  although  some 
progress  was  made  by  certain  of  the  states,  notably  by 
North  Carolina.  The  merchants  in  the  towns  and  cities 
could  depend  upon  private  schools,  while  the  planters 
could  hire  tutors  for  their  children.  The  South  had  many 
academies  for  boys  and  girls  and  boasted  of  some  of  the 
finest  private  libraries  in  the  country.  Many  southern 
leaders,  like  Calhoun,  of  Yale,  were  educated  in  northern 
colleges.  The  white  population  of  the  upland  and  moun 
tain  districts  was  too  poor  to  support  schools.  Since  there 
was  little  immigration  from  Europe,  the  need  of  free  public 
schools  for  assimilating  alien  peoples  was  not  so  keenly  felt 
as  in  the  North. 


348        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

II.   HIGH  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES  ;  THE  EDUCATION  OF 

WOMEN 

The  Development  of  Secondary  Education.  The  Acad 
emies.  —  Before  the  Revolution,  a  new  type  of  secondary  school 
known  as  the  "  academy  "  had  come  into  existence.  It  was 
different  from  the  old  Latin  grammar  school  in  which  Greek, 
Latin,  logic,  and  mathematics  were  the  chief  studies.'  It 
laid  more  emphasis  upon  such  subjects  as  English,  mathe 
matics,  drawing,  and  the  rudiments  of  the  sciences.  The 
academies  were  not  public  schools  and  were  not  sup 
ported  by  taxation,  but  they  were  somewhat  more  demo 
cratic  than  the  older  Latin  grammar  schools  where  a  few 
young  men  were  prepared  for  college.  They  were  attended 
largely  by  the  children  of  fairly  well-to-do  merchants  and 
farmers,  who  could  afford  to  pay  the  tuition  fees  and  the  board 
and  lodging  of  their  children. 

After  the  Revolution,  these  academies  increased  in  num 
ber  and  finally  almost  entirely  displaced  the  Latin  grammar 
schools,  especially  after  they  began  to  prepare  students 
for  college. 

The  Beginnings  of  the  Public  High  School.  —  About 
1820  a  demand  arose  for  another  type  of  secondary 
school,  —  a  school  controlled  by  the  public,  designed 
to  prepare  children  more  for  the  work  of  life,  and  open 
to  children  whose  parents  could  not  afford  the  heavy  tui 
tion  fees  and  the  boarding  and  lodging  expenses  of 
the  academies.  In  1821  such  a  school  was  established 
in  Boston  by  the  public  school  board  acting  for  the  people 
of  that  city.  In  1825  a  somewhat  similar  school  was 
founded  in  New  York  City.  These  were  the  first  Ameri 
can  high  schools. 

High  schools  were  not  at  the  outset  connected  with  the 
lower  schools  as  our  present-day  high  schools  are ;  that  is, 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  POPULAR  EDUCATION     349 


\ 


children  did  not  "  graduate  "  from  the  eighth  grade  and 
then  go  on  to  the  high  school.  The  grading  system,  indeed, 
was  unknown  as  yet.  The  high  schools  were  open  to  boys 
who  had  completed  certain  studies.  They  kept  the  boys 
for  four  or  five  years,  giving 
them  work  in  English, 
mathematics,  drawing,  sur 
veying,  navigation,  book 
keeping,  and  similar  "  prac 
tical  "  studies.  They  did 
not  teach  Latin  or  other 
foreign  languages  at  first, 
nor  did  they  attempt  to 
prepare  pupils  for  college. 

The  idea  of  a  public  high 
school  spread  very  slowly. 
The  battle  for  taxation  had 
to  be  fought  again.  While 
the  people  were  being  won 
over  to  supporting  elemen 
tary  schools  by  taxation,  many  still  thought  that  only  such 
rudiments  as  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  and 
history  should  be  provided  at  public  expense.  By  1860, 
however,  there  were  probably  as  many  as  one  hundred  public 
high  schools  in  the  towns  and  cities  of  the  northern  and 
middle  western  states,  although  the  academy  still  pre 
vailed  as  the  leading  type  of  secondary  school. 

Higher  Education. — While  the  public  schools  were  being 
created,  colleges  continued  to  multiply.  The  religious  de 
nominations  needed  schools  for  the  training  of  their  clergy, 
and  their  colleges,  once  established,  came  to  attract  students 
who  were  looking  forward  to  law  and  medicine  as  well  as 
to  the  ministry. 

The  Beginnings  of  the  State    University. — The  idea  of 


THE  ENGLISH  CLASSICAL  SCHOOL,  THE 
FIRST  HIGH  SCHOOL  IN  BOSTON,  ES 
TABLISHED  IN  l82I 


350        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

free,  tax-supported  education,  which  was  slowly  being  ex 
tended  to  include  the  high  schools,  was  destined  to  reach 
the  colleges  and  universities.  Leaders  came  to  believe 
that  education  in  all  branches  should  be  open  to  all  and 
should  be  furnished  at  public  expense.  The  ideal  had  ap 
peared  in  the  Land  Ordinance  of  1785,  which  provided  a 
grant  of  land  for  a  public  college  in  each  of  the  states  that 
should  be  carved  out  of  the  Northwest  Territory.  It  had 


THE  OLDEST  PICTURE  OF  ONE  OF  THE  FIRST  PROMINENT  STATE  UNIVERSITIES, 
THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN  IN  1855 

also  been  foreshadowed  by  the  ambitious  proposals  of 
Thomas  Jefferson,  who  planned  for  Virginia  a  great  educa 
tional  system,  including  elementary  schools,  high  schools, 
and  finally  a  state  university. 

Many  of  the  state  universities  of  the  South  were  opened 
very  early  in  the  country's  history:  North  Carolina,  1795; 
Georgia,  1801  ;  South  Carolina,  1804.  In  the  Middle  West, 
Ohio  in  1802,  and  Indiana  in  1824,  led  the  way.  The  first 
of  the  state  universities  to  attain  a  wide  reputation  as  the 
capstone  of  the  public-school  system  was  the  University  of 
Michigan,  which  was  planned  most  pretentiously  in  1817 
and  opened  very  modestly  in  1841. 

The  Education  of  Girls  and  Women.  —  So  far  we  have 
spoken  of  education  as  if  it  concerned  boys  and  girls  alike. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  the  education  of  girls  and  women  lagged 
far  behind  that  of  boys  and  men.  Only  in  the  lowest 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF   POPULAR  EDUCATION      351 

elementary  schools  were  girls  freely  admitted,  in  order 
that  they  might  learn  to  read  and  write  and  master  the 
catechism.  The  grammar  schools  and  the  academies,  which 
prepared  boys  for  college  or  for  business,  were  closed  to 
girls.  It  was  not  thought  necessary  for  a  long  time  to 
give  them  more  than  the  merest  rudiments  of  learning. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  serious  writer 
exclaimed  :  "  All  a  girl  needs  t-o  know  is  enough  to  reckon  how 
much  she  will  have  to  spend  to  buy  a  peck  of  potatoes  in 
case  she  becomes  a  widow."  In  view  of  the  prevalence  of 
such  opinions,  it  is  not  surprising  that  all  the  colleges 
were  closed  to  women. 

Higher  Education  of  Women. — The  general  awakening  of 
women,  however,  produced  many  reforms  in  the  field  of 
education.  Being  barred  from  the  grammar  schools,  the 
academies,  and  even  the  few  public  high  schools,  women 
turned  to  "  female  "  academies  and  seminaries  which  be 
gan  to  spring  up  all  over  the  country.  In  1833  Oberlin 
College  did  a  daring  thing  by  opening  its  doors  to  women, 
and  in  1847  it  graduated  Lucy  Stone  who,  as  we  have 
said,  became  one  of  the  leading  champions  of  higher  edu 
cation  and  equal  political  rights  for  women.  In  1853, 
Horace  Mann,  the  famous  New  England  educator,  who 
had  been  called  to  the  presidency  of  Antioch  College  in 
Ohio,  invited  women  to  come  and  share  the  advantages 
offered  to  men.  These  were  striking  exceptions.  By  1860 
there  were  only  four  or  five  colleges  in  the  whole  country  open 
to  women,  and  even  at  Oberlin  they  were  confined  to  a  special 
"  select "  course  of  studies.  The  state  universities  supported 
by  taxation  were  closed  to  them. 

Summary.  —  By  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
United  States  had  given  up  the  old-fashioned  and  aristo 
cratic  view  that  the  common  people  needed  merely  the  ele 
ments  of  education  —  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic, — 


352        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

and  were  unworthy  of  the  best  of  the  world's  thought. 
In  the  place  of  this  old-fashioned  notion  had  been  adopted 
the  principle,  if  not  the  practice,  that  the  gateways  to  learn 
ing  should  be  opened  to  all,  rich  and  poor,  boys  and  girls, 
alike. 

In  order  to   apply  the   principle    certain   standards  had 
been  worked  out : 

1.  Graded  schools  should  b«  maintained  through  public 
taxation  and  opened  freely  to  all. 

2.  In  order  to  prevent  the  backward   regions  from  neg 
lecting  the  education  of  their  youth,  the  state  government 
should  aid  and  control  its  entire  school  system. 

3.  The  public  schools  should  not  be  sectarian;  that  is, 
controlled  by  any  religious  denomination. 

4.  Teachers  should  be  trained  at  public  expense, 

5.  The   state   should   not  rely   upon   religious   bodies   or 
gifts  from  the  rich  to  furnish  college  education  for  young 
men   and   women,   but   should   establish   colleges   and   uni 
versities  as  free  to  the  citizens  as  the  public  schools  them 
selves. 

III.   THE  NEWSPAPERS 

The  Significance  of  the  Press.  —  If  the  people  had  been 
compelled  to  rely  upon  the  schools  alone  for  their  education, 
their  progress  would  have  been  slow  indeed.  The  schools 
gave  the  keys  of  knowledge  to  the  masses  and  made  it 
possible  for  them  to  read  the  books,  papers,  pamphlets, 
and  magazines  of  every  party,  sect,  creed,  and  group.  It 
was  this  that  broke  down  the  monopoly  of  learning  by  any 
sect  or  class.  It  is  the  newspaper  and  the  book  that  make 
a  person  a  citizen  of  a  nation  and  of  the  world  rather  than 
the  inhabitant  of  a  narrow  community.  It  is  the  press 
that  opens  to  the  humblest  the  record  of  the  past  and  of 
tiie  day.  It  is  the  press  that  by  the  hourly  discussion 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF   POPULAR  EDUCATION     353 


of  every  live  topic  makes  it  possible  for  millions  to  think 
together  and  prepare  the  way  for  action  together.  The 
noblest  and  the  wisest  think  in  vain  if  their  thoughts  are 
confined  to  their  own  minds  and  perish  with  them.  The 
schools  and  the  press,  —  these  are  the  mighty  weapons  of 
popular  government.  The  rise  and  growth  of  democracy  is 
marked  by  their  rise  and  growth. 

The  Colonial  Press.  -  -  The  history  of  the  press  and  the 
history  of  the  schools  run  parallel.  The  printing  press  was 
first  regarded  as  a  powerful  ally  of  the  schools  in  the  spread 
of  religious  doctrines.  Within  ten  years  after  the  founding  of 
the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony,  namely  in  1639,  a  printing 
press  was  set  up  in  Cam 
bridge,  Massachusetts.  The 
next  year  the  first  hook 
published  on  American  soil 
-  the  "  Bay  Psalm  Book"  - 
was  issued. 

For  a  long  time  printing 
was  confined  mainly  to  re 
ligious  works,  but  in  1690 
a  newspaper  appeared  in 
Boston,  bearing  the  curious 
title  of  Publick  Occurrences 
Both  Foreign  and  Domestic. 
It  was  regarded  with  so 
much  alarm,  however,  that 
the  government  promptly  suppressed  it.  Fourteen  years 
later  a  second  paper,  The  Boston  News  Letter,  a  little  sheet 
of  four  small  pages,  the  first  regular  newspaper  in  America, 
ventured  forth.  Within  a  few  y^ars  weekly  newspapers 
had  been  founded  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Annapolis, 
Williamsburg  (Virginia),  and  Charleston.  The  Maryland 
Gazette  was  established  in  1745.  The  oldest  newspaper  in 


KIND  OF  PRINTING  PRESS  USED  BY 
BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN 


354        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

North  America  which  has  continued  without  interruption 
or  change  of  name  is  the  New  Hampshire  Gazette,  which 
started  on  its  career  in  1756.  None  of  the  colonial  papers, 
however,  were  dailies.  It  was  not  until  1784  that  the  first 
daily,  the  American  Daily  Advertiser,  was  founded  in 
Philadelphia. 

The  colonial  papers  were  crude,  and  had  only  a  small 
circulation.  For  example,  only  three  hundred  copies 
of  the  Boston  News  Letter  were  printed  each  week.  The 
type  was  set  by  hand,  and  the  printing  was  done  on  a 
hand  press,  which  printed  one  sheet  at  a  time.  By 
the  hardest  labor,  only  two  or  three  hundred  copies  an 
hour  could  be  printed.  There  was  little  news  in  the  papers, 
because  the  editors  assumed  that  every  one  knew  what  was 
going  on  in  the  local  community,  and  relied  upon  foreign 
newspapers  and  private  letters  for  information  about  out 
side  affairs.  Sometimes,  however,  there  were  startling 
"  sensations,"  as  in  1704,  when  the  Boston  News  Letter  de 
scribed  in  detail  the  execution  of  six  pirates  in  Charles  River. 

The  Royal  Governors  Oppose  the  Freedom  of  the  Press. 
—  Small  as  these  papers  were,  they  were  widely  read  ;  con 
sequently  the  royal  officers  in  the  colonies  objected  to 
their  saying  anything  about  political  matters.  In  New 
York,  for  example,  a  publisher  by  the  name  of  Peter  Zenger 
was  imprisoned  in  1735  for  criticizing  the  governor,  and 
lawyers  who  agreed  to  defend  him  lost  their  licenses.  When 
Zenger's  trial  was  held,  a  lawyer  from  Philadelphia,  Andrew 
Hamilton,  was  called  to  defend  him.  There  was  great 
excitement  during  the  trial.  Hamilton  in  his  speech  to 
the  jury  declared  :  "  It  is  not  the  cause  of  a  poor  printer, 
nor  of  New  York  alone,  that  the  jury  is  now  trying.  It 
is  the  cause  of  liberty !  "  Zenger  was  acquitted  by  the 
jury,  amid  public  rejoicing,  and  Hamilton  was  wined  and 
dined  and  given  the  freedom  of  the  City  of  New  York.  In 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF   POPULAR  EDUCATION     355 

Virginia  the  newspaper  seems  to  have  been  controlled  by 
the  royal  governor.  Jefferson  thought  in  1766  that  in  order 
to  get  a  public  discussion  of  disputes  with  Great  Britain  it 
was  necessary  to  found  another  paper,  because  the  printer 
of  the  old  sheet  would  not  publish  anything  that  dis 
pleased  the  governor. 

The  Influence  of  the  Colonial  Press  on  the  Revolution.  - 
The  royal  officers  were  correct  in  assuming  that  the  news 
papers  would  stir  up  public  discontent  with  the  government. 
The  feeling  against  Great  Britain  on  the  eve  of  the  War  for 
Independence  was  strongest  in  the  news  centers  :  Boston, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Annapolis,  Williamsburg,  and 
Charleston.  In  the  newspaper  offices  ardent  young  revo 
lutionists  wrote  appeals  to  their  countrymen  to  resist  Great 
Britain.  These  little  newspapers  were  scattered  around 
in  the  coffee  houses  and  club  rooms,  spreading  rebellion 
everywhere.  The  editors  in  each  town  copied  extensively 
from  the  newspapers  published  in  other  places.  They 
helped  to  carry  the  news  of  the  revolutionary  movement 
and  to  create  a  nation  by  enabling  the  citizens  in  every 
part  to  know  what  was  going  on  in  the  most  distant 
places.  The  Royalists  of  Boston  called  the  office  of  the 
Massachusetts  Spy  the  "  sedition  foundry." 

Growth  of  Newspapers  after  the  Revolution.  The  Rise  of 
the  Partisan  Press.  —  Following  the  establishment  of  inde 
pendence,  the  number  of  newspapers  rapidly  increased. 
With  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  and  the  growth  of 
the  two  political  parties,  Federalists  and  Jeffersonians,  the 
discussion  of  political  issues  became  of  supreme  importance. 
Hamilton,  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  and  a  leading 
Federalist,  raised  money  among  his  party  friends  to  support 
the  United  States  Gazette;  while  Jefferson,  Secretary  of 
State,  gave  his  support  to  the  Republican  paper,  The 
National  Gazette.  In  a  little  while,  party  papers  appeared 


356        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

everywhere,  abusing  one  another  and  the  public  officers 
of  opposite  views.  As  early  as  1793  The  Sentinel  of  the 
Northwest  was  founded  in  Cincinnati  by  the  postmaster, 
and  it  was  not  long  before  every  little  frontier  town  had  a 
newspaper  of  some  sort.  Special  newspapers,  such  as  the 
papers  published  for  workingmen,  The  Liberator  issued  by 
Garrison  for  the  Abolitionists,  and  temperance  sheets, 
appeared  in  large  numbers. 

Newspaper  Development  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.  - 
It  would  be  impossible  to  record  here  the  marvelous  growth 
of  newspapers  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
but  some  of  the  reasons  for  the  development  may  be  briefly 
summarized  : 

1.  The  telegraph  and   railway  multiplied   manyfold    the 
means  of  securing  information  for  the  newspapers. 

2.  As  the  cities  grew  in  size  and  population  increased, 
the   newspapers   secured  more  and  more  paid   advertising, 
and    thus    were    able    to    reduce    their    subscription    price. 
In  1833   the   New  York  Sun  startled  the  newspaper  world 
by  introducing  a  penny  paper.     That  enabled  the  man  in 
the  street  to  have  his  newspaper  every  day.     In  the  larger 
cities  the  weekly  newspapers  were  driven  out  by  the  dailies. 

3.  Universal  education  made  it  possible  for  the  humblest 
to  read. 

4.  There  appeared  a  number  of  newspapers  of  national 
influence.     One  of  these  was  the  New  York  Tribune,  founded 
in  1841  by  Horace  Greeley.     Daily  and  weekly  editions  of 
this  famous  paper  were  published,  and  thousands  of  farmers 
in  the  East  and  West  relied  upon  the  Tribune  for  their  na 
tional  news  and  their  political  opinions. 

5.  The  old-fashioned  hand  press  was  superseded  about 
1850,  in  all  the  larger  newspaper  offices,  by  a  rapid  rotary 
machine  driven  by  steam.     Instead  of  two  or  three  hundred 
copies  an  hour,  publishers    cou4d    then   turn    out    several 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF   POPULAR   EDUCATION     357 

thousand  copies  an  hour.  Cheap  printing,  combined  with 
advertising,  made  it  possible  for  every  one  to  have  books 
and  newspapers  at  a  small  cost. 

6.  In  order  to  encourage  the  reading  of  newspapers,  the 
government  fixed  the  postage  rate  for  printed  material  at 
a  very  low  figure,  even  less  than  the  actual  cost  of  carriage. 


IV.   MAGAZINES,  PAMPHLETS,  AND  BOOKS 

The  Magazines.  —  Although  the  popular  magazine  with 
its  circulation  of  millions  belongs  to  our  own  day,  the  be 
ginnings  of  such  periodicals  run  back  beyond  the  Revolution. 
Before  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  were  at 
least  forty  magazines,  registers,  reviews,  "  museums,"  and 
"  repositories  of  knowledge."  They  satisfied  a  popular 
thirst  for  more  general  information  than  that  found  in 
the  weekly  and  daily  press.  They  included  articles  on 
music,  poetry,  and  literature,  and  in  time  extensive  dis 
cussions  of  current  political  questions. 

Among  the  most  noted  of  the  early  magazines  was  the 
North  American  Review,  established  in  1815  and  continued 
until  the  present  day  without  interruption.  Twelve  years 
later  (1827)  the  first  magazine  intended  for  women  alone, 
the  Ladies'  Magazine,  was  founded.  It  was  in  connection 
with  the  illustration  of  women's  magazines  that  the  art 
of  steel  engraving  was  developed  to  a  high  point  which 
admitted  of  its  wide  use  by  other  publications.  It  was 
illustrations  that  made  magazines  popular. 

Political  Pamphlets.  —  Some  of  the  greatest  American 
political  writings  appeared  during  the  exciting  years'  that 
followed  the  quarrel  with  Great  Britain  and  the  establish 
ment  of  the  Constitution.  Thomas  Paine,  in  his  Common 
Sense  and  The  Crisis,  aided  powerfully  in  raising  the  revolt 
against  the  mother  country  and  vigorous  thinking  about 


358         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

popular  government.  In  the  contest  over  the  adoption 
of  the  Constitution,  Alexander  Hamilton,  James  Madison, 
and  John  Jay  wrote  a  remarkable  series  of  papers  in  the 
defense  of  the  new  plan  of  government,  later  collected 
as  The  Federalist,  and  used  generally  as  a  textbook  on 
American  government.  Among  the  later  political  writers 
should  be  mentioned  John  C.  Calhoun,  the  famous  states- 
.man  and  defender  of  slavery  from  South  Carolina,  and 
Daniel  Webster,  whose  speeches  on  the  Constitution  and 
Union  were  almost  as  widely  circulated  in  the  North  as  The 
Federalist  itself. 

The  Development  of  the  Novel.  Early  American  Novels. 
-  The  earliest  American  writers  of  romance,  like  Charles 
Brockden  Brown  (1771-1810),  followed  European  models. 
Even  when  they  did  lay  the  scenes  of  their  stories  in  this 
country  they  brought  in  Old  World  characters  —  scornful 
gentlemen  and  fainting  ladies.  Neither  here  nor  in  England 
was  it  thought  that  America  afforded  any  materials  for  tales  of 
the  imagination.  Here  there  were  no  towering  battlements, 
no  lordly  knights,  no  lovely  ladies  in  castles,  no  giants  or 
ogres.  American  life  was  hard  and  practical,  and  even  the 
most  fanciful  did  not  think  that  real  stories  could  be  woven 
out  of  the  doings  of  common  people.  James  K.  Paulding 
(1779-1860)  undertook  a  novel  along  American  lines  when 
he  published  "  The  Backwoodsman,"  but  it  won  only  a 
scanty  recognition.  It  required  courage  and  a  new  kind 
of  skill  and  imagination  to  create  an  American  romance. 

Cooper,  Irving,  and  Hawthorne. — About  the  third  decade 
of  the  nineteenth  century  authors  succeeded  in  writing 
stories  of  American  life  that  attracted  serious  attention 
abroad  as  well  as  at  home.  In  1831  James  Fenimore 
Cooper  published  "  The  Spy/'  a  story  of  the  American 
Revolution ;  and  this  was  followed  by  his  tales  of  Indian 
adventure,  which  speedily  gave  him  a  reputation  in  foreign 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF   POPULAR   EDUCATION     359 

lands  as  far  away  as  Persia.  To  this  period  also  belong 
Washington  Irving,  whose  legends,  "  Rip  Van  Winkle  "  and 
"Sleepy  Hollow,"  have  taken  their  place  in  the  enduring 
literature  of  America;  Edgar  Allan  Poe,  whose  mysterious 
and  exciting  stories  gave  him  a  wide  circle  of  readers ; 


COOPER,  IRVING,  AND  HAWTHORNE 

Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  whose  "Twice  Told  Tales,"  "Mosses 
from  an  Old  Manse,"  and  "Scarlet  Letter"  won  for  him 
more  than  national  reputation;  and  Harriet  Beecher 
Stowe,  whose  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin "  stirred  the  North 
on  the  subject  of  slavery. 

Poetry.  —  Most  of  the  poetry  of  this  period  was  given 
to  the  country  by  New  England.  In  some  of  it,  such  as 
"  Evangeline,"  "  Hiawatha,"  and  the  "  Courtship  of  Miles 
Standish  "  by  Longfellow,  American  romances  were  chosen. 
In  some,  the  voice  of  the  reformer  was  heard.  James 
Russell  Lowell,  in  the  "  Biglow  Papers,"  sharply  criticized 
the  government  for  carrying  on  the  Mexican  War.  John 
Greenleaf  Whittier  denounced  slavery  and  preached  the 
cause  of  abolition  and  woman  suffrage.  Other  New  Eng 
land  poets  followed  the  classical  models  of  the  Old  World. 
William  Cullen  Bryant,  with  his  "  Thanatopsis  "  written 
while  he  was  a  youth  not  yet  eighteen,  secured  lasting 


360        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

fame.     From   the    South    came    Edgar  Allan    Poe,    whose 
"  Raven,"    published   in    1845,   established    his    reputation 


LONGFELLOW,  LOWELL,  AND  POE 

forever;  and  two  other  poets  of  genuine  worth,  Paul 
Hamilton  Hayne  of  South  Carolina,  and  Sidney  Lanier  of 
Georgia. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.  What  was  the  chief  reason  for  the  establishment  of  schools 
in  early  colonial  times?  2.  What  is  the  meaning  of  "secular" 
education?  3.  Why  did  the  growth  of  different  religious  sects 
and  denominations  lead  to  the  secularization -of  education?  4.' 
What  effect  did  immigration  from  Europe  have  upon  this  move 
ment  ?  .5.  What  is  meant  by  "universal"  education?  6. 
How  did  Lancaster  and  Bell  plan  to  make  elementary  education 
universal  ?  What,  in  your  opinion,  would  be  some  of  the  dis 
advantages  of  schools  organized  on  their  plan  ?  7.  Who  were 
some  of  the  important  leaders  in  the  movement  for  free,  tax-sup 
ported  schools  ?  8.  What  provisions  were  made  by  the  federal 
government  for  the  support  of  schools  in  the  western  country  ? 
Why  were  these  provisions  not  sufficient  for  the  schools  ?  9. 
Why  did  education  develop  more  slowly  in  the  South  than  in  the 
North  and  the  West  ? 

II.  i.  How  did  the  academies  differ  from  our  present  high 
schools  ?  2.  Why  did  the  high  schools  grow  so  slowly  at  first  ? 
3.  How  were  the  early  colleges  supported  ?  4.  What  state  was 
the  first  to  establish  a  public,  tax-supported  university  as  a  part 
of  its  public-school  system  ?  5.  What  opportunities  did  girls 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF   POPULAR   EDUCATION     361 

and  women  have  for  education  in  colonial  times  ?  In  the  early 
days  of  the  Republic  ?  6.  What  causes  led  to  a  recognition  of  the 
need  of  education  for  women  as  well  as  men  ? 

III.  i.    What    is    meant    by    the    "Press"?       By    a     ''free 
press"?        2.    Why    is    a  "free   press"   so    important    in    a    de 
mocracy  ?     Why    did    the    colonial    governors  often    oppose    the 
development  of  newspapers  ?     What  influence  did  the  newspapers 
have    upon    the  struggle    for    independence?       3.    To-day    each 
newspaper    usually  represents  some  political  party.     When  did 
this  practice  begin  ?       4.    What  causes  led  to  the  rapid  develop 
ment  of  newspapers  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  ? 

IV.  i.    Name  some  of  the  early   magazines.       2.    Who  were 
some  of  the  political  leaders  who  spread  their  ideas  by  means  of 
pamphlets  ?     If  these  men  lived  to-day,  what  means  would  they 
probably  use   to  get  their  ideas   before   the   people?        3.    Why 
were  novels   and   poems   dealing  with    American  life  so   slow  to 
appear  ?  X  Who   were  the   important   American  writers  of  novels 
and  poems  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  ? 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Find  out  how  much  it  costs  to  maintain  the  public  schools 
of  your  town  or  city  for   a  year,   including  salaries  for  superin 
tendent,  principals,   teachers,   and   other   school   employees,    and 
the  cost  of  fuel  and  other  supplies.     Divide  the  total  cost  by  the 
number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  schools  each  year   in  order  to 
find  how  much  is  spent  for  each  pupil.     Where  does  the  money 
for  the  support  of  your  schools  come  from  ? 

2.  The  Ordinance  of  1785  set  aside  one  section  of  land  (640 
acres)  in  each  township  of  thirty-six  sections  for  the  support  of 
schools.     Find  how  much  rent  640  acres  of  farm  land  would  bring 
each  year  in  your  town  or  township.     Would  this  be  sufficient 
to-day  to  support  the  schools  ? 

3.  Prepare  a  brief  account  of  the  work  of  Horace  Mann. 
See  Brooks's  "Stories  of  the  Old  Bay  State/'  pp.  250-257. 


362         THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

OUTLINE     FOR     REVIEW    OF    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE     NATION 
(CHAPTERS  XIV,  XV,  XVI,  XVII,  XVIII,  XIX) 

I.    Political  development  between  1815  and  1845. 

A.  Important  political  issues  of  the  period. 

1.  The  protective  tariff. 

2.  Internal  improvements. 

3.  The  sale  of  public  lands. 

4.  The  United  States  Bank. 

B.  Political  leadership. 

1.  The   administrations   of  James   Monroe   and   John 

Quincy  Adams. 

2.  Andrew  Jackson's  administration. 

3.  Webster,  Hayne,  Clay,  and  Calhoun. 

C.  The  rise  of  the  Whig  party. 

1.  The  campaign  of  1840:   Harrison  and  Tyler. 

2.  Tyler's  unpopularity  :   the  Ashburton  Treaty. 
II.    The  settlement  of  the  territory  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

A.  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Iowa. 

B.  The  Texas  problem  :   the  admission  of  Texas. 

III.  The  war  with  Mexico :     Cause,  campaigns,  and  terms  of 

peace. 

IV.  The  settlement  of  the  far  western  country. 

A.  Oregon,  California,  and  Utah. 

B.  Summary  of  the  far  western  movement. 
V.    The  industrial  revolution. 

A.  England's  early  leadership  in  industry. 

B.  The  development  of  manufacturing  in  America. 

1.  The  cotton  industry :   the  cotton  gin. 

2.  The  woolen  industry.  ^ 

3.  The  invention  of  the  sewing  machine. 

4.  The  iron  industry  :   development  in  Pennsylvania. 

C.  The  development  of  farm  machinery. 

D.  Means  of  transportation  and  communication. 

1.  Canals. 

2.  The  steamboat. 

3.  The  railroad. 

4.  The  express  business. 

55.    The  telegraph  :  the  Atlantic  cable. 
6.    Ocean  navigation. 


OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW  363 

VI.    The  effect  of  the  industrial  revolution  upon  American  life. 

A.  The  division  of  labor  and  the  separation  of  the  worker 

from  his  tools. 

B.  Women  in  the  factories,  child  labor. 

C.  Immigration  stimulated  to  bring  new  supply  of  labor. 

D.  The  labor  movement. 

E.  The  growth  of  the  cities. 

F.  Foreign  trade. 

G.  The  South  and  the  industrial  revolution. 
VII.    The  growth  of  political  democracy. 

A.  The  struggle  for  universal  manhood  suffrage. 

B.  The  struggle  for  women's  rights. 

VIII.    The  development  of  popular  education  in  the  first  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century. 

A.  The  religious  character  and  purpose  of  colonial  schools. 

B.  The  removal   of  the  schools  from   the  control  of  the 

church. 

C.  The  development  of  free  elementary  schools. 

D.  The  development  of  high  schools. 

E.  The  development  of  higher  education  :    state  universi 

ties. 

F.  The  education  of  girls  and  women. 

G.  The  development  of  the  newspapers,  magazines,  and 

political  pamphlets. 

H.   The  early  American  novels,  American  poetry. 
Important  names  : 

Presidents:  John  Quincy  Adams  (1825-1829),  Jackson  (1829- 
1837),  Van  Buren  (1837-1841),  Harrison  and  Tyler  (1841-1845), 
and  Polk  (1845-1849). 

Other  Political  Leaders :    Clay,  Webster,  Calhoun. 

Pioneers :   Moses  Austin,  Marcus  Whitman,  Brigham  Young. 

Inventors:  Slater,  Whitney,  Fulton,  Howe,  McCormick,  and 
Morse. 

Educational  Leaders :  Mann,  Barnard,  Clinton,  Mary  Lyon,  and 
Emma  Willard. 

Labor  Leaders:   Robert  Owen  and  Frances  Wright. 

Writers :  Paine,  Cooper,  Irving,  Hawthorne,  Poe,  Bryant,  Long 
fellow,  Whittier,  Lowell,  and  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe. 

Military  Leaders:   Taylor  and  Scott. 
Important  date :    1846-1848. 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  GREAT  POLITICAL  CONFLICT  BETWEEN  THE  NORTH 
AND  THE   SOUTH 

L  The  wonderful  advance  in  invention,  industry,  education, 
western  settlement,  and  democracy  made  the  future  of  the 
United  States  seem  full  of  promise  ;ibut  on  the  horizon  there 
hung  a  dark  cloud  which  grew  larger  day  by  day.  The 
storm  of  civil  war  was  approaching.  The  very  progress 
we  have  described  prepared  the  way  for  it  by  marking  the 
country  off  into  three  distinct  sections  :  the  manufacturing 
Northeast,  the  free  farming  West,  and  the  planting  South. 
These  economic  differences  led  to  sharp  differences  of 
opinion  about  the  policies  to  be  pursued  by  the  federal 
government. 

1.  The  planters  of  the  South  demanded  free  trade  with 
Europe,  in   order   that    they  might    freely    exchange   their 
cotton,  rice,  tobacco,  and    hemp  for  manufactured    goods. 

2.  The    manufacturers    of   the   Northeast,   on   the  other 
hand,  insisted   that   the  government   should   put  a  tax  on 
manufactured  goods  coming  into  the  country,  in  order  that 
they  might  have  control  of  American  markets. 

3.  The  free  farmers  of  the  West  were  divided  in  opinion. 
At  some  elections  they  voted  with  the  South  and  at  others 
they   voted   with   the   Northeast.     At  last  many  of  them 
were  won  over  to  the  latter,  partly  by  offers  of  internal  im 
provements  and  free  land  to   be  granted  to  citizens   from 
the  public  domain. 

364 


THE  GREAT  POLITICAL  CONFLICT  365 

As  time  went  on,  the  opposition  between  the  North  and 
the  South  became  more  and  more  bitter.  Attacks  finally 
were  made  on  slavery,  the  source  of  Southern  power,  and  in 
the  end  the  issues  were  tried  out  on  the  field  of  battle. 


I.   SLAVERY  BECOMES  A  NATIONAL  PROBLEM 

The  Constitution  a  Compromise  on  the  Question  of  Slavery. 
—  The  founders  of  the  Constitution  had  recognized  the 
existence  of  jealousy  between  the  "  commercial  "  and  the 
"  planting  "  sections  of  the  country.  Only  by  a  series  of 
necessary  compromise?  had  they  succeeded  in  bringing  the 
two  together  into  the  Union.  As  we  have  seen,  they  agreed, 
in  effect,  although  they  did  not  mention  slavery  in  the  Con 
stitution  : 

(1)  that  the  importation  of  slaves  from  abroad  should 
not  be  prohibited  before  1808; 

(2)  that  the  slave  states  should  be  given  representation 
in  the  House  of  Representatives  for  three  fifths  of  their 
slaves ; 

(3)  that  slaves  escaping  into  other  states  should  be  re 
turned  to  their  masters  when  properly  claimed  ; 

(4)  that  the  consent  of  two  thirds  of  the  Senators  should 
be  necessary  for  treaties,  so  that  commercial  arrangements 
could  not  be  made  with  other  nations  without  the  ap 
proval  of  at  least  some  Southern  Senators. 

With  slavery  in  the  states,  the  framers  of  the  Constitution 
did  not  interfere  at  all,  leaving  the  matter  to  be  decided 
by  each  state  as  it  saw  fit. 

Many  of  the  "  Fathers  "  Opposed  Slavery.  —  Several  of  the 
patriot  fathers  who  framed  the  Constitution  were  strongly 
opposed  to  slavery  and  in  favor,  of  putting  an  end  to 
it,  but  they  thought  the  Union  was  so  important  that  it 
should  not  be  endangered  by  a  quarrel  over  slavery  itself. 


366        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

Washington,  for  example,  disliked  slavery  and  provided  in 
his  will  that  his  own  slaves  should  be  set  free  after  the 
death  of  his  wife.  Jefferson  believed  that  slavery  was  con 
trary  to  every  principle  of  human  justice  and  could  not 
endure  forever.  He  even  went  so  far  as  to  introduce  into 
the  Virginia  legislature  a  bill  providing  for  the  gradual 
emancipation  of  slaves.  George  Mason,  a  Virginia  member 
of  the  Convention  that  drafted  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  denounced  human  bondage  in  vigorous 
terms,  saying  :  "Slavery  discourages  arts  and  manufactures. 
The  poor  despise  labor  when  performed  by  slaves.  Slaves 
prevent  the  immigration  of  whites.  Every  master  of  slaves 
is  born  a  petty  tyrant.  Slaves  bring  the  judgment  of 
heaven  on  a  country." 

Northern  States  Abolish  Slavery. — The  early  opponents 
of  slavery  were  much  encouraged  by  the  fact  that  the 
Northern  states  had  begun  to  abolish  it  within  a  few  years 
after  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  The  Massachu 
setts  constitution  of  1780  declared  all  men  to  be  born  free 
and  equal ;  this  was  held  to  put  an  end  to  slavery.  In  the 
same  year  Pennsylvania  provided  for  gradual  .  abolition. 
New  York  in  1799  declared  that  all  children  of  slaves  born 
after  July  4th  of  that  year  should  be  free,  though  held  for  a 
long  term  as  apprentices;  and  in  1827  the  state  legislature 
swept  away  the  last  remnants  of  slavery.  New  Hampshire, 
Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  and  New  Jersey  followed  the 
example  of  these  states.  In  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  there 
was  some  talk  of  abolition,  and  some  slave  owners  joined 
the  African  Colonization  Society  founded  in  1816  to  assist 
free  negroes  in  returning  to  Africa  to  found  free  colonies. 

Arguments  for  Slavery  in  the  South.  —  Nevertheless, 
there  were  many  citizens  who,  from  the  very  first,  were 
bitterly  opposed  to  all  talk  about  abolition.  The  delegates 
of  South  Carolina  to  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787 


THE  GREAT  POLITICAL  CONFLICT  367 

declared  that  slavery  was  absolutely  necessary  to  carry  on 
the  plantations  of  their  state.  They  also  strongly  objected 
to  stopping  the  importation  of  slaves,  on  the  ground  that 
the  number  of  deaths  every  year  in  the  rice  swamps  made 
it  necessary  for  planters  to  have  new  supplies  constantly. 
It  is  a  mistake  to  say,  therefore,  that  the  Fathers  were  all 
agreed  that  slavery  was  an  evil.  Many  of  them,  particu 
larly  from  the  Far  South,  thought  it  not  only  necessary,  but, 
on  the  whole,  good  for  the  negroes  as  well  as  for  the  planters. 

Why  Slavery  Became  a  National  Problem.  -  -  The  great 
mass  of  the  American  people  in  the  opening  decades  of  the 
nineteenth  century  probably  did  not  think  very  much 
about  slavery  one  way  or  the  other.  They  were  busy  with 
the  opening  up  of  the  West  and  Southwest ;  then  came  the 
War  of  1812  which  lasted  for  three  years;  and  after  that 
arose  the  questions  of  a  protective  tariff,  a  national  bank, 
the  Monroe  Doctrine,  and  other  important  political  issues. 
A  few  Quakers  presented  a  petition  against  slavery  to  the 
first  Congress  under  the  Constitution ;  but  most  citizens 
were  opposed  to  bringing  slavery  into  national  politics  at  all. 
Whenever  they  had  occasion  to  discuss  it,  they  said  that  it 
was  a  matter  for  the  states  to  settle  for  themselves. 

It  was  impossible,  nevertheless,  to  keep  slavery  out  of 
national  politics  altogether,  because  it  inevitably  came  to 
the  front  in  the  following  ways  : 

1.  When  a  new  state  was  about  to  be  admitted  to  the 
Union,  the  question  naturally  arose  in  Congress  whether  it 
should  be  admitted  as  a  free  or  a  slave  state. 

2.  Whenever   new  land  was  acquired  or   new  territories 
were  organized   by  Congress,  the  question  came  up  as  to 
whether  slavery  should  be  prohibited  or  permitted.     In  con 
nection  with  this  there  arose  a  dispute  as  to  whether  Con 
gress  even  had  the  power,  under  the  Constitution,  to  abolish 
or  prevent  slavery  in  the  territories. 


368        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

3.  Since  Congress  had  full  power  to  govern  the  District 
of  Columbia,  abolitionists  demanded  that  it  should,  at  all 
events,  abolish  slavery  at  the  national  capital. 

4.  The  Constitution  provided  that  slaves  escaping  from 
their  masters  into  other  states  should  be  delivered  up  on 
claim  of  their  owners.     The  citizens  of  the  free  states  dis 
liked  very  much  to  see  "  slave  catching  "  going  on  around 
them,   even  if  they  were  not  much  disturbed  by  slavery 
some  hundreds  of  miles   away.     In   this  .connection   there 
arose  the   question   as  to  how  far  the  federal  government 
should   help  in   the  work  of  returning   runaway   slaves   to 
their  owners. 

5.  Finally  the  extreme  abolitionists  demanded  immediate 
emancipation,  in  spite  qf  the  Constitution,  which  recognized 
the  existence  of  slavery  in  Southern  states  as  lawful.     Some 
of  them  even  advocated  that  the  free  states  should  with 
draw  from  what  they  called  an  "  unholy  union  "  with  slave 
states. 

The  Situation  in  1820.  —  The  question  as  to  the  power  of 
Congress  to  prohibit  slavery  in  any  territory  owned  by  the 
United  States  arose  early  in  connection  with  the  government 
of  the  lands  beyond  the  Alleghenies  ;  and  at  the  time  it  was 
decided  that  Congress  had  full  authority.  The  Northwest 
Territory  above  the  Ohio  River  was  declared  to  be  free 
territory  by  the  famous  Ordinance  of  1787^  and  as  a  result 
the  states  afterward  established  therein  became  free  states. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  territory  to  the  south  of  the  Ohio 
became  slave  territory.  Kentucky,  which  had  been  a  part 
of  Virginia,  was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1792  as  a  slave 
state.  Tennessee  came  in  four  years  later  on  the  same 
terms.  The  territory  between  Georgia  and  the  Mississippi 

1  The  Ordinance  was  afterwards  approved  by  the  first  Congress  under  the 
Constitution,  and  thus  the  power  of  Congress  to  abolish  slavery  in  the  territories 
was  confirmed. 


THE  GREAT  POLITICAL  CONFLICT 


369 


was  declared  to  be  slave  territory,  and  when   Alabama  and 
Mississippi  were  admitted  slavery  was  continued. 


Wi..f.Ey:;;.Co..\.y. 


THE  MISSOURI  COMPROMISE 


Accordingly  in  1820  there  were  in  the  Union  eleven  free 
states  and  eleven  slave  states  : 


FREE  STATES 
Vermont 
New  Hampshire 
Massachusetts 
Connecticut 
Rhode  Island 
New  York 
New  Jersey 
Pennsylvania 
Ohio 
Indiana 
Illinois 


SLAVE  STATES 
Delaware 
Maryland 
Virginia 
North  Carolina 
South  Carolina 
Georgia 
Kentucky 
Alabama 
Tennessee 
Mississippi 
Louisiana 


The  Missouri  Compromise  (1820). -- Thus  things  stood 
when  the  inhabitants  of  Missouri,  in  1818,  asked  for  the 


2B 


370        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

right  to  form  a  state.  There  were  many  slaves  in  Missouri, 
because  the  lands  had  been  taken  up  largely  by  settlers 
from  Southern  states,  who  had  brought  slaves  with  them. 
Their  right  to  do  this  had  not  been  questioned,  and 
when  they  sought  admission  to  the  Union  they  assumed  as 
a  matter  of  course  that  Missouri  would  be  a  slave  state. 
It  happened,  however,  that  there  were  many  opponents  of 
slavery  in  Congress,  who  were  determined,  if  possible,  to 
check  its  spread  beyond  the  Mississippi.  Neither  side  would 
give  way  to  the  other,  and  a  deadlock  ensued. 

The  Admission  of  Maine. — The  deadlock  might  have  con 
tinued  indefinitely.  The  approval  of  both  houses  of  Congress, 
of  course,  was  necessary  to  the  admission  of  Missouri.  The 
South,  having  one  half  of  the  Senators,  could  prevent  the 
Senate  from  voting  for  admission  without  slavery.  The 
North,  having  control  of  the  House  of  Representatives, 
could  keep  a  slave  territory  out  of  the  Union  indefinitely. 
Just  at  that  time,  however,  Maine,  with  the  consent  of 
Massachusetts,  of  which  it  had  formerly  been  a  part,  was 
applying  for  admission.  The  friends  of  slavery  would  not 
admit  a  new  free  state  unless  their  opponents  would  admit 
a  new  slave  state.  The  contest  was  settled  by  a  compromise. 
Missouri  was  admitted  with  slavery,  and  Maine  with  freedom, 
thus  continuing  the  even  balance  between  the  free  and  slave 
states. 

Other  Features  of  the  Compromise.  —  At  the  same  time 
it  was  agreed  that  the  remainder  of  the  Louisiana  territory 
north  of  the  parallel  of  36°_3C/jshould  be  forever  free,  and 
understood  that  south  of  that  line  slavery  would  continue. 
This  was  really  a  great  gain  for  the  friends  of  freedom,  for 
the  area  won  for  IriSerty  was  several  times  the  size  of 
the  region  left  for  slavery.  Moreover,  the  principle  was 
once  more  approved,  that  Congress  could  abolish  slavery 
in  the  territories  belonging  to  the  United  States,  On  the 


THE  GREAT  POLITICAL  CONFLICT  371 

whole,  therefore,  the  North  came  out  of  the  conflict  vic 
torious,  although  some  continued  to  declare  that  any  con 
cession  to  slavery  was  in  fact  a  defeat.  The  moderate 
citizens  on  both  sides  were  fairly  well  satisfied. 

\s 
II.   THE  ABOLITION  MOVEMENT 

Garrison  and  the  "  Liberator."  -  For  a  while  after  the  Mis 
souri  Compromise,  very  little  was  heard  in  national  politics 
about  slavery,  and  many  people  thought  the  question  was 
settled  forever.  Their  hopes  wrere  short-lived,  however. 
Within  a  few  years  a  number  of  Northern  men  and  women 
began  to  agitate  for  the  complete  abolition  of  the  slavery 
system  throughout  the  entire  Union.  Some  of  them  pro 
posed  gradual  emancipation  and  the  payment  of  the  slave 
owners  for  their  property,  in  part,  at  least,  out  of  the  sale 
of  public  lands.  Others,  more  radical  and  more  impatient, 
demanded  immediate  and  unconditional  abolition  of  slavery 
without  any  payment  whatever.  Among  the  latter  was 
William  Lloyd  Garrison,  who,  in  1831,  began  to  publish  in 
Boston  his  famous  paper,  known  as  the  Liberator,  bearing 
at  its  head  the  motto  :  "  Our  country  is  the  world  —  our 
countrymen,  all  mankind." 

Agitators  Create  Bitter  Opposition. — The  group  of  radical 
agitators  soon  encountered  bitter  hatred  on  the  part  of  the 
people  at  large  in  the  North  as  well  as  in  the  South.  While, 
no  doubt,  very  few  men  in  the  North  or  South  would  have 
voted  to  establish  slavery,  if  it  had  not  already  existed,  the 
majority  of  them,  as  yet,  took  little  or  no  interest  in  aboli 
tion.  Northern  merchants  and  bankers  objected  to  any 
agitation,  because  they  had  heavy  investments  in  Southern 
trade  and  mortgages  on  Southern  plantations.  Others  held 
that  if  the  North  opposed  slavery  the  Southern  states  might 
secede,  and  thus  break  up  the  Union  which  had  been  built 
with  such  great  labor  and  sacrifice. 


372        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

To  this  argument  Garrison  replied  that  the  Union  with 
slaveholders  was  an  evil  covenant,  and  that  he  preferred 
to  see  the  Constitution  of  the  Union  in  ruins  rather  than  to 
remain  longer  a  citizen  of  a  slave  nation.  The  opponents 
of  the  agitation  stirred  up  riots  against  Garrison  and  his 
followers,  and  sometimes  mobbed  them  when  they  at 
tempted  to  state  their  views  in  public.  In  1835  Garrison 
was  assaulted  in  the  streets  of  Boston.  Two  years  later, 
Lovejoy,  another  anti-slavery  leader,  was  killed  at  Alton, 
Illinois,  and  his  printing  presses  broken  to  pieces,  as  a  warn 
ing  to  all  men  who  attacked  slavery. 

The  agitators  were  not  daunted  by  mobs.  They  pre 
pared  books,  pamphlets,  and  leaflets  depicting  the  evils 
of  slavery,  and  sent  their  publications  through  the  mails 
all  over  the  South.  This,  of  course,  thoroughly  frightened 
the  Southern  people.  Their  fear  was  increased  by  a  terrible 
uprising  of  slaves  in  Virginia,  in  1831,  known  as  Nat  Turner's 
Rebellion,  in  which  a  number  of  white  men,  women,  and 
children  had  been  brutally  killed.  It  was  said  in  the  South 
that  the  anti-slavery  agitators  were,  in  fact,  encouraging 
negroes  to  murder  their  own  masters.  A  demand  was  made 
that  abolition  literature  should  be  excluded  from  the  post 
office. 

Petitioning  the  Congress:  the  "Gag  Rule."  -Among  the 
favorite  devices  of  the  agitators  was  the  use  of  the  petition 
to  Congress.  They  prepared  protests  against  slavery  in 
the  territories,  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  in  the  South 
ern  states  as  well,  and  secured  thousands  of  signatures. 
These  they  dispatched  to  Congress  from  every  direction. 
Southern  Representatives  in  Congress  insisted  that  it  was 
insulting  to  them  to  receive  such  petitions  and  demanded 
that  the  practice  be  stopped. 

In  1836  the  House  of  Representatives  declared  that,  while 
it  could  not  prevent  anti-slavery  agitators  from  circulating 


THE  GREAT  POLITICAL  CONFLICT  373 

petitions  and  presenting  them,  it  would  prevent  the  reading 
of  these  petitions.  Under  this  "  gag "  resolution,  as  it 
was  called,  petitions  were  simply  thrown  into  the  waste 
basket  when  they  were  received.  For  nearly  ten  years 
John  Quincy  Adams,  the  former  President,  then  a  mem 
ber  of  Congress,  continued  to  protest  against  this  treat 
ment  of  petitions.  Finally,  in  1844,  the  practice  was 
abandoned. 

Slavery  Grows  in  Spite  of  Opposition.  —  Notwithstanding 
the  agitation  against  slavery,  the  slaveholders  were  to  all 
appearances  growing  more  and  more  powerful  in  the  coun 
try.  The  new  machinery  for  spinning  and  weaving  in  Eng 
land  and  New  England  created  such  a  demand  for  cotton 
that  all  the  energies  of  the  South  were  required  to  supply  it. 
In  1792,  the  year  in  which  Whitney  invented  his  cotton  gin, 
less  than  two  hundred  thousand  pounds  of  cotton  was  sent 
out  of  the  United  States  to  Europe.  Within  three  years  the 
shipments  had  risen  to  six  million  pounds.  By  1850  cotton 
made  up  more  than  one  naif  of  the  total  value  of  all  the 
goods  exported  from  the  United  States.  No  wonder  the 
Southern  leaders  were  saying  "  Cotton  is  King." 

The  demand  for  laborers  to  till  the  fields  increased  and -the 
number  of  slaves  multiplied.  In  1790  there  were  about 
700,000  slaves  in  the  United  States ;  forty  years  later  the 
number  had  grown  to  2,000,000;  and  about  1860  there  were 
3,954,000,  valued  at  more  than  $2,000,000,000.  In  the 
older  states,  slave  owners  began  to  raise  slaves  to  sell 
in  the  Southwest,  and  thousands  were  smuggled  into  the 
country  from  Africa  in  spite  of  the  law  against  it. 

The  Slaveholders  a  Small  Group.  —  At  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  only  about  one  white  man  in  five  or 
six  in  the  South  owned  slaves.  Nevertheless,  the  slave 
owners,  certainly  less  than  one  fourth  of  the  adult  white 
males  in  the  slave  states,  ruled  the  South  through  their  great 


374        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

wealth  and  power.  The  influence  of  this  small  class  in  the 
government  at  Washington  was  all  the  stronger,  because  the 
Constitution  provided  that  in  apportioning  representatives 
among  the  states  according  to  numbers,  the  South  should  be 
allowed  to  count  three  fifths  of  its  slaves  as  persons.  Thus 
a  Southern  state  had  more  representatives  in  the  lower  house 
of  Congress  than  a  Northern  state  with  the  same  number  of 
voters. 

Calhoun's  Defense  of  Slavery.  —  As  the  country  grew 
richer  and  richer  from  cotton,  Southern  leaders  became  more 
and  more  impatient  with  the  anti-slavery  agitators.  In 
the  early  days,  many  Southern  statesmen  had  spoken  of 
slavery  as  a  great  wrong,  but  the  newer 'generation  of  South 
ern  men  began  to  defend  it  warmly  instead  of  criticizing 
or  apologizing  for  it.  For  instance,  Calhoun,  Senator  from 
South  Carolina,  said  that  slavery,  far  from  being  an  evil 
was  a  good,  "  a  perfect  good,"  the  only  possible  relation 
that  could  exist  between  the  white  race  and  the  black.  He 
said  that  the  slaves  were  taken  away  from  barbarism  in 
Africa  and  brought  up  to  a  certain  degree  of  civilization-, 
in  the  South  ;  that  they  were  looked  after  in  their  sickness 
and  old  age  by  kind  masters,  and  were  not  usually  as  cruelly 
treated  as  workmen  in  mills  and  factories.  On  the  con 
trary,  he  said,  the  modern  workingman  was  in  a  sadder 
plight  than  the  slave,  because  he  had  to  work  for  long  hours 
and  low  wages  in  factories ;  in  case  of  sickness  or  accident 
he  was  compelled  to  starve ;  and  in  his  old  age  he  was  turned 
out  to  die  or  live  in  a  poorhouse,  because  he  was  no  longer 
valuable  to  his  employer.  Thus  the  Southern  statesmen 
took  issue  with  the  anti-slavery  agitators,  denouncing  the 
wage  system  of  the  North  as  more  cruel  to  the  workers  than 
the  slave  system  of  the  South.  Furthermore,  they  urged 
that  discontented  workmen  would  be  more  dangerous  to 
the  country  as  a  whole  than  the  peaceful  bondmen. 


THE  GREAT  POLITICAL  CONFLICT  375 

III.   THE  COMPROMISE  OF  1850 

The  Wilmot  Proviso.  —  All  this  discussion  stirred  up  ill 
feeling  in  both  sections  of  the  Union,  and  when,  after  the 
close  of  the  Mexican  War,  the  question  arose  as  to  what 
should  be  done  with  the  territory  acquired,  a  storm  again 
broke  out  in  Congress  over  slavery.  David  Wilmot,  a  mem 
ber  of  the  House  of  Representatives  from  Pennsylvania, 
had  proposed  in  1846  that  any  territory  taken  from  Mexico 
should  be  free  territory  and  that  slavery  should  be  entirely 
forbidden  in  it,  as  it  had  been  in  the  Northwest  Territory 
under  the  famous  Ordinance  of  1787.  The^slave  owners  had 
been  very  active  in  bringing  on  the  Mexican  War  and  were 
in  no  mood  to  surrender  their  rights  in  the  territory  finally 
taken  from  Mexico  by  the  treaty  of  1848.  They  intended  to 
make  it,  as  far  as  possible,  slave  territory  and  to  increase  and 
fortify  the  power  of  the  South  in  the  federal  government. 
The  "  Wilmot  Proviso/'  as  it  was  called,  was,  therefore,  re 
jected. 

California  Asks  Admission.  —  Having  defeated  Wilmot's 
proviso,  they  were  much  disturbed  to  find  the  matter  re 
opened  in  1849,  when  the  voters  of  California  called  a  con 
vention,  approved  a  state  constitution  forbidding  slavery, 
and  asked  admission  to  the  Union.  President  Taylor, 
the  hero  of  the  Mexican  War,  who  had  been  elected  as  the 
Whig  candidate  in  1848,  transmitted  to  Congress  in  1850 
the  request  of  California.  Northern  men  were  generally  in 
favor  of  the  proposal ;  Southern  leaders  were  opposed 
to  it. 

Varying  Opinions;  "  Squatter  Sovereignty."  -  At  that 
time  the  country  was  roughly  divided  into  five  groups  : 

(i)  A  small  number  of  agitators  who  were  determined 
that  slavery  should  be  abolished,  and  were  prepared  to  carry 
on  an  agitation  until  the  goal  was  reached. 


376        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

(2)  A  small  group  of  Southerners,  equally  determined  on 
the  other  side,  who  declared  that  slavery  was  not  only  a 
good  thing  to  be  defended  to  the  uttermost,  but  that  it  should 
be  spread   all  over  the  territories  of  the  West  —  perhaps 
all  over  the  United  States. 

(3)  A  very  large  group  of  Northerners  who  were  willing 
to  let  slavery  alone  in  the  South,  but  were  determined  that 
it  should  not  grow  by  extension  to  the  territories,  or  to  the 
new  states   admitted  to  the  Union  north  of  the  Missouri 
compromise   line. 

(4)  A  group  of  moderate  Southern  men  who  feared  that 
by  forcing  slavery  on  all  the  territories  they  might  bring 
about  a  desperate  conflict  between  the  North  and  the  South, 
and,  therefore,  were  willing  to  come  to  some  compromise 
in  the  matter. 

(5)  A  group  of  men  in  the  North  and  South  who  believed 
that  voters  of  each  territory  should  be  permitted  to  decide 
whether   or   not   they  would   establish   slavery.     This   last 
plan  —  especially  associated  with  the  name  of  Stephen  A. 
Douglas  —  was  called  "  squatter   sovereignty  "  because  it 
proposed  that  the  settlers  or  "  squatters  "  in  the  territories 
should   decide   the   question   for  themselves  without  inter 
ference  from  the  outside. 

The  Compromise  of  1850. — As  a  result  of  the  conflict 
among  all  these  groups  another  compromise  was  arranged 
in  1850,  by  that  master  of  compromises,  Henry  Clay,  of 
Kentucky.  He  said  it  was  evident  that  the  people  of  each 
section  would  have  to  yield  some  of  the  points  in  the  dis 
pute  in  order  to  prevent  war.  He  was  able  to  bring  about 
the  following  settlement : 

1.  California  was  admitted  as  a  free  state. 

2.  Buying  and  selling  slaves  was  abolished  in  the  District 
of  Columbia,  while  slavery  itself  was  continued  there. 

3.  The  voters  of  the  New  Mexico  and  Utah  territories 


THE  GREAT  POLITICAL  CONFLICT 


377 


were  to  be  permitted  to  choose  for  themselves  between  free 
dom  and  slavery. 

4.  There  was  enacted  by  Congress  a  strict  "  fugitive 
slave  law  "  under  which  it  was  easier  for  slave  owners  to 
catch  their  runaway  slaves  in  the  North  and  take  them 
home. 

Opposition  to  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law.  —  This  great  com 
promise,  arranged  by  political  leaders,  failed  to  bring  about 


The  Fugitive  Slave  Law  allowed  runaway  slaves  in  free  territory  to  be  captured. 


"the  union  of  hearts,"  as  Clay  had  hoped.  On  the  con 
trary,  it  made  the  anti-slavery  people  in  the  North  more 
bitter  than  ever.  They  were  especially  angry  about  the 
fugitive  slave  law.  Before  the  passage  of  that  act  slave 
owners  who  sought  to  capture  runaway  slaves  in  the  North 
had  been  compelled  to  depend  upon  local  sheriffs  and  con 
stables,  and  had  found  it  difficult  indeed  to  secure  help  in 
seizing  their  property.  Under  the  new  law  of  1850  it  was 
provided  that  United  States  officers  should  assume  full  re 
sponsibility  for  aiding  owners  in  search  for  their  slaves. 


378         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

In  many  a  Northern  city  and  village  where  people  had 
previously  thought  very  little  about  slavery,  they  were  now 
deeply  stirred  by  seeing  federal  officers  capture  and  handcuff 
negroes  and  drive  them  through  the  streets  on  the  way 
South  to  their  former  owners.  Thousands  who  had  had  no 
opinion  about  slavery  one  way  or  the  other  were  now  op 
posed  to  it. 

The  "  Underground  Railroad"  -*—  As  time  went  on  the 
opponents  of  slavery  helped  more  and  more  negroes  to 
escape  from  the  South.  They  laid  out  certain  routes  known 
as  "  underground  railroads  "  from  village  to  village,  and 
selected  in  each  place  one  or  two  trusted  families  as  guards. 
They  sent  agents  into  the  South  to  bring  slaves  into  free 
states,  and  then  carried  them  at  night  along  these  routes, 
hiding  them  in  the  daytime  in  cellars  and  garrets  at  the 
homes  of  the  keepers  of  "  underground  stations." 

"Uncle  Tom's  Cabin."  -  While  this  agitation  was  going 
on,  Mrs.  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe  published,  in  1852,  her 
famous  novel,  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  in  which  she  set  forth 
the  worst  features  of  slavery  in  the  most  vivid  language. 
The  book  seemed  to  show  that  all  masters  were  unkind  and 
that  all  slaves  were  as  noble  as  Uncle  Tom,  though,  of  course, 
this  was  not  the  purpose  of  the  author. 

Perhaps  nothing  else  stirred  the  North  so  much  as  this 
moving  story.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  copies  were  sold 
in  a  short  time.  It  was  dramatized  and  played  in  every 
little  village  and  hamlet  throughout  the  North.  Thus  liter 
ally  millions  of  people  who  were  not  accustomed  to  read 
serious  books  and  newspapers  began  to  wonder  whether 
they  should  longer  tolerate  slavery.  Southern  people 
were  also  stirred  by  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin."  They  said 
it  was  not  a  true  picture  of  slavery  and  was  an  insult  to 
the  entire  South.  Ill  will  between  the  sections  was  greatly 
increased. 


THE  GREAT  POLITICAL  CONFLICT  379 

Anti-slavery  Political  Parties.  —  Some  of  the  most  active 
anti-slavery  leaders  ventured  to  leave  the  old  parties  — 
Whigs  and  Democrats  —  and  found  a  new  one.  In  1840, 
a  few  of  them  held  a  convention  and  nominated  James  C. 
Birney  for  President,  but  their  candidate  polled  only  about 
seven  thousand  votes  in  the  election  of  that  year.  They 
named  their  organization  the  "  Liberty  Party,"  and,  with 
Birney  as  their*  candidate  again  in  1844,  they  secured 
sixty-two  thousand  votes.  Four  years  later  the  opponents 
of  slavery  formed  the  "  Free  Soil  Party,"  nominated  for 
President  Martin  Van  Buren,  of  New  York,  and  obtained 
nearly  three  hundred  thousand  votes,  largely,  it  seems, 
from  former  Northern  Democrats  who  were  loyal  to  the 
stanch  friend  of  Andre\Y  Jackson.  The  next  presidential 
year,  the  Free  Soil  party  suffered  a  serious  decline  in  strength, 
for  the  popular  vote  for  its  candidate,  John  P.  Hale,  of  New 
Hampshire,  was  only  about  half  that  secured  in  1848. 

IV.  THE  REPEAL  OF  THE  MISSOURI  COMPROMISE  AND  ITS 
CONSEQUENCES 

The  pro-slavery  advocates  among  the  Democrats,  on 
electing  their  candidate,  Franklin  Pierce,  in  18152,  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  danger  from  the  abolitionists  was 
subsiding. 

The  Kansas-Nebraska  Act  (1854)  Repeals  the  Missouri 
Compromise.  —  Apparently  overconfident,  under  the  leader 
ship  of  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  of  Illinois,  the  Democrats 
took  a  step  in  favor  of  slavery  which  startled  the  North. 
In  1854,  in  an  act  organizing  the  Kansas  and  Nebraska 
territories,  they  repealed  the  Missouri  Compromise  of  1820, 
by  which  it  had  been  agreed  that  slavery  should  be  pro 
hibited  in  the  Louisiana  Territory  north  of  36°  30'. 

The  North  flamed  up  at  once.  Hundreds  of  moderate 
men  —  Whigs  and  Democrats  alike  —  who  were  willing  to  let 


38° 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


THE  KANSAS-NEBRASKA  TERRITORY 
OPENED  TO  SLAVERY  IN  1854 


slavery  alone  in  the  states  where  it  already  existed,  said  this 
bill   showed  a  determination  on  the  part  of  slave  owners 

to  rule  or  ruin  the  whole 
country.  Douglas  was 
burned  in  effigy  in  Northern 
cities  —  indeed,  he  said  him 
self  that  he  could  travel 
from  Boston  to  Chicago  in 
the  light  of  the  fires.  Men 
began  to  desert  the  Whigs, 
who  refused  to  take  a  stand 
on  the  slavery  question,  and 
the  Democrats,  who  seemed 
committed  to  the  slave- 
holding  interest.  These  de 
serters  from  the  old  parties 
demanded  that  the  extension  of  slavery,  at  least  in  the  ter 
ritories,  be  stopped. 

The  Republican  Party  Organized  (1854). —  So  it  came 
about  in  1854  that  a  new  party,  called  the  Republican 
party,  was  formed  in  the  North.  It  held  its  first  national 
convention  at  Philadelphia  in  June,  1856,  and  nominated 
for  President  John  C.  Fremont,  the  Western  explorer.  It 
declared  that  it  was  the  right  and  duty  of  Congress  to 
prohibit  slavery  in  the  territories,  and  that  Kansas  should 
be  admitted  as  a  free  state.  With  the  advent  of  the 
Republicans,  the  Whigs  began  to  go  to  pieces  and  many 
Democrats,  who  disliked  slavery,  went  over  to  the  new  party. 
In  the  campaign  of  1856,  however,  the  Democrats  were 
again  victorious,  electing  James  Buchanan,  of  Pennsylvania, 
by  nearly  five  hundred  thousand  votes  more  than  Fremont 
polled. 

Border  Warfare  in  Kansas.  —  Having  carried  the  elec 
tion,  the  Democrats  let  the  people  of  Kansas  fight  out 


THE  GREAT  POLITICAL  CONFLICT 


381 


among  themselves  the  question  as  to  whether  slavery 
should  be  permitted  there.  They  literally  did  fight  —  with 
rifles  and  knives.  Pro-slavery  men  from  the "  South  and 
anti-slavery  men  and  women  from  the  North  rushed  to 
Kansas,  each  side  bent  on  winning  the  state.  The  result 
was  a  veritable  civil  war.  The  attention  of  the  whole  nation 
was  called  to  "  bleeding  Kansas  "  -  and  to  the  utter  failure 


THE  HURLY-BURLY  POT 

A  Democratic  cartoon  showing  the  Republican  party  as  a  collection  of  discontented 

elements. 

of  the  doctrine  of  "  squatter  sovereignty  "  as  a  plan  for 
settling  the  issue  of  slavery.  Southern  Democrats  wanted 
to  bring  Kansas  into  the  Union  under  a  constitution  which 
protected  all  the  slave  owners  who  had  taken  their  slaves 
into  the  territory.  The  Free  Soil  men  rejected  it  and  drew 
up  a  constitution  of  their  own  at  Topeka,  but  Congress 
refused  to  admit  Kansas  as  a  free  state  until  1861, 

The  Dred  Scott  Decision  (1857).  — Although  they  were 
defeated  in  their  effort  to  make  Kansas  a  slave  state,  the 


382        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

pro-slavery  Democrats  won  a  great  victory  by  a  decision  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  in  March,  1857. 
Dred  Scott,  a  slave  from  Missouri,  had  been  taken  by  his  mas 
ter  into  territory  north  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  line, 
and  he  claimed  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
that  residence  in  this  "  free  territory "  made  him  "  free." 
In  deciding  the  case,  Chief  Justice  Taney  declared  that 
Congress  had  no  power  under  the  Constitution  to  abolish 
slavery  in  the  territories.  This  meant  that  it  would  be  nec 
essary  to  change  the  Constitution  before  Congress  could 
legally  prohibit  slavery  there,  and  it  required  the  approval 
of  three  fourths  of  all  the  states  to  amend  the  Constitu 
tion.  The  Court  also  held  that  the  Missouri  Compromise 
had  been  unconstitutional  and  void.  The  Southern  lead 
ers  and  their  Northern  sympathizers  rejoiced  in  the  decision, 
for  apparently  the  Supreme  Court  had  blocked  the  plan  of 
the  new  Republican  party  to  abolish  slavery  in  all  the  terri 
tories  by  act  of  Congress.  Anti-slavery  leaders  denounced 
the  Court  and  said  that  it  was  nothing  but  a  tool  of  the 
slave  owners.  They  declared  that  Congress  would  prohibit 
slavery  in  spite  of  what  the  Supreme  Court  had  said. 

The  Lincoln-Douglas  Debates.  —  About  this  time,  Abra 
ham  Lincoln  and  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  candidates  in  Illinois 
for  the  United  States  Senate,  held  a  series  of  debates  which 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  whole  country.  Lincoln  took 
the  ground  that  slavery  should  be  prohibited  in  the  ter 
ritories  and  vigorously  attacked  Douglas'  doctrine  of 
"squatter  sovereignty."  He  asked  Douglas  how  the  people 
of  a  territory  could  abolish  slavery,  when  the  Dred  Scott 
decision  had  declared  that  even  Congress,  which  had  the 
supreme  power  in  governing  the  territories,  could  not  do  it. 
This  forced  Douglas  into  a  corner,  but  he  continued  to 
maintain  that  the  people  of  a  territory  by  "  unfriendly " 
legislation  could  lawfully  drive  out  slavery. 


THE  GREAT  POLITICAL  CONFLICT 


383 


Although  Douglas  won  the  election,  he  really  lost  the 
debates.  The  extremists  among  the  Southern  leaders  were 
furious  with  him  for  saying  that  slavery  could  be  abolished  in 
a  territory  by  popular  action,  thus  destroying  the  fruits  of  the 
Dred  Scott  decision.  Lincoln,  on  the  other  hand,  as  a  result 


f      '7VV   'V'  ..... 

From  a  photograpi, 

ONE  OF  THE  LINCOLN-DOUGLAS   DEBATES,  SEVEN  OF  WHICH  WERE  HELD  BE 
TWEEN  AUGUST  21  AND  OCTOBER  15,  1858 

of  his  clear  and  striking  statement  of  the  Republican  case 
against  slavery  in  the  territories,  became  a  national  figure. 

John  Brown's  Raid.  —  While  Lincoln  was  attacking 
slavery  in  the  territories,  and  the  abolitionists  were  de 
nouncing  it  everywhere,  a  grim  and  resolute  man,  John 


384        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

Brown,  with  a  band  of  followers,  invaded  the  South  for 
the  purpose  of  stirring  up  a  slave  revolt  and  bringing  about 
emancipation  by  violence.  Brown  so  hated  slavery  that  it 
rankled  in  his  bosom  day  and  night.  During  the  bloody 
struggle  in  Kansas  he  had  hurried  to  the  frontier  to  fight 
slave  owners,  and  by  deeds  of  daring  and  cruelty  had  become 
an  outlaw  on  whose  head  a  high  price  was  set.  In  1859  he 
went  into  Virginia.  In  October  of  that  year,  with  a  hand 
ful  of  men,  he  seized  the  government  armory  at  Harper's 
Ferry,  declared  the  slaves  whom  he  found  there  to  be  free, 
and  called  upon  them  to  take  up  arms  for  their  liberty. 
While  fighting  desperately,  Brown  was  captured.  A  few 
weeks  later  he  was  declared  guilty  of  murder  and  treason 
against  Virginia  and  hanged. 

Like  an  alarm  bell  on  a  still  night,  this  raid  brought  the 
hearts  of  the  American  people  to  their  throats.  The 
South  had  visions  of  terrible  slave  uprisings  in  every  com 
munity.  Lincoln  and  nearly  all  the  Republican  leaders  de 
nounced  Brown's  rash  deed  as  the  act  of  a  madman.  But 
it  strained  still  more  the  weakening  tie  between;  the  North 
and  the  South. 

V.  THE  POLITICAL  SITUATION  ON  THE  EVE  OF  THE  CIVIL 

WAR 

The  Tariff  and  Homestead  Issues.  --  Deeply  as  the  re 
peal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  and  the  Dred  Scott  de 
cision  were  resented  in  the  North,  it  was  by  no  means  cer 
tain  that  the  majority  of  the  voters  were  in  favor  of  abolishing 
slavery  in  the  territories  or  even  disturbing  slavery  at  all. 
It  was  apparently  impossible  for  the  Republicans  to  win 
the  presidency  on  the  slavery  question  alone.  Luckily  for 
them,  the  Democrats  gave  them  another  issue  by  attacking 
the  protective  tariff. 

In  1857,  the  year  of  the  Dred  Scott  decision,  Congress, 


THE  GREAT  POLITICAL   CONFLICT  385 

under  the  direction  of  Southern  leaders,  made  a  decided  re 
duction  in  the  tariff,  much  to  the  dissatisfaction  of  the 
middle  and  western  states,  particularly  Pennsylvania  and 
Ohio.  Thousands  of  people  who  did  not  care  about  slavery 
at  all  did  care  about  this  "  assault  upon  American  in 
dustry"  by  the  Southern  planters.  Feeling  against  the 
Democrats  was  further  increased,  especially  among  the 
farmers  of  the  West  and  workingmen,  when  President 
Buchanan  vetoed  an  act  of  Congress  proposing  to  give 
farms  practically  free  of  charge  to  those  who  wished  to  settle 
on  the  government  lands.  The  South  was  afraid  that  it 
would  be  overbalanced  by  the  commercial,  manufacturing, 
and  free  farming  states  of  the  North,  if  it  permitted  the 
encouragement  of  industries  by  tariffs  and  the  immediate 
settlement  of  the  western  lands  by  free  gifts. 

The  Republican  Aid  to  Manufacturers  and  Farmers.  - 
When  the  Republicans  came  to  hold  their  second  national 
convention  at  Chicago  in  1860,  they  found  themselves 
strengthened  by  new  and  powerful  recruits  :  (i)  advocates 
of  a  high  protective  tariff  and  (2)  friends  of  the  free  farmers 
and  workingmen  who  wanted  to  open  up  the  western  lands 
for  rapid  settlement.  In  their  platform,  the  Republicans 
declared  against  slavery  in  the  territories  and  in  favor  of 
a  protective  tariff  and  free  homesteads.  All  these  issues 
were  dovetailed  together.  If  the  territories  were  free  and 
free  states  were  erected  out  of  them,  the  predominance  of 
the  South  would  be  broken  forever  in  the  Senate  as  well 
as  in  the  House  of  Representatives.  The  industrial  states 
would  then  be  in  less  danger  of  attacks  upon  laws  pro 
tecting  their  manufacturing  interests.  The  question  of 
slavery  was  therefore  involved  in  another  issue  —  the  con 
test  between  the  two  economic  systems  —  the  planting 
South  and  the  manufacturing  North.  The  free  farmers  of 
the  West  held  the  balance  of  power. 

2C    ^ 


386         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

Lincoln,  a  Son  of  the  Soil. --When  the  hour  came  for 
selecting  their  candidate,  the  Republicans  had  to  be  careful. 
It  was  necessary  to  win  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois.  The 
southern  sections  of  these  states  were  filled  with  settlers 
from  the  South  who,  even  if  they  did  not  like  slavery, 
were  violently  opposed  to  anything  that  savored  of 
abolition.  In  the  other  parts  of  these  states  the  confidence 
of  the  farmers  had  to  be  won.  The  selection  of  a  violent 
opponent  of  slavery,  like  William  H.  Seward,  Senator  from 
New  York,  was  therefore  thought  unwise.  So  the  managers 
made  a  happy  choice.  They  chose  Abraham  Lincoln,  a  man 
of  Southern  origin,  a  son  of  the  soil,  born  of  poor  parents, 
a  pioneer  who  had  in  his  youth  labored  in  the  forests  and 
fields.  It  was  known  that  he  disliked  slavery  but  that  he 
was  no  abolitionist.  Though  willing  to  let  slavery  alone 
in  the  South,  he  was  firmly  in  favor  of  unconditional 
prohibition  of  slavery  in  the  territories.  Of  his  sincerity 
there  could  be  no  doubt.  He  was  a  speaker  and  writer  of 
singular  power,  commanding,  by  the  use  of  clear  and  simple 
language,  the  minds  and  hearts  of  those  who  heard  him  or 
read  his  printed  words.  With  Lincoln  as  a  candidate,  the 
farmers  of  the  Northwest  could  be  won ;  and,  with  the  pro 
tective  tariff  plank  in  the  platform,  the  great  industrial  state 
of  Pennsylvania  could  be  torn  away  from  the  free-trade 
Democrats.  While  the  abolitionists  were  not  satisfied  with 
the  candidate  or  the  platform,  moderate  opponents  of  slav 
ery  exulted  in  the  thought  of  limiting  the  system  to  the 
states  where  it  already  existed. 

Division  among  the  Democrats.  -  -  The  Democrats,  in 
stead  of  presenting  a  solid  front  to  the  Republicans,  were 
divided  among  themselves.  In  fact,  they  split  into  two 
parties.  The  moderate  Democrats  nominated  as  their 
candidate  Douglas,  the  exponent  of  "  squatter  sovereignty." 
The  uncompromising,  pro-slavery  Democrats,  who  demanded 


THE  GREAT  POLITICAL  CONFLICT 


387 


that  slavery  should  be  recognized  as  right  and  upheld  by 
the  country,  put  forward  as  their  candidate  John  C.  Breck- 
enridge,  of  Kentucky.  Some  of  the  old  Whigs  and  moder 
ate  Democrats  selected  John  Bell  of  Tennessee  on  a  platform 


«;«  a  photograph 

THE  DEMOCRATIC  COXVEXTIOX  OF  1860,  WHICH  SPLIT,  NOMINATING  Two 
CANDIDATES  FOR  THE  PRESIDENCY 

which  called  for  loyalty  to  the  Union  and  silence  on  the 
slavery  issue.  With  the  country  thus  divided,  Lincoln 
was  elected  President,  although  he  polled  little  more  than 
one  third  of  the  total  vote. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  —  I.  What  were  the  provisions  of  the  Constitution  regard 
ing  slavery  ?  What  did  many  of  the  prominent  Southern  mem 
bers  of  the  Convention  think  of  slavery?  2.  Why  did  the 


388        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

South  oppose  the  admission  of  new  "free"  states  ?  Why  did  the 
North  oppose  the  admission  of  new  "slave"  states?  3.  Would 
you  speak  of  the  opposition  of  the  North  to  the  extension  of 
slavery  as  due  to  a  belief  that  slavery  was  wrong  ?  Give  reasons 
for  your  answer.  4.  What  is  meant  by  a  "  compromise "  ? 
State  the  principal  points  of  the  Missouri  Compromise. 

II.  i.    Who  were  the  "abolitionists"  ?     How  did  their  attitude 
toward  slavery  differ  from  that  of  most  of  the  people  of  the  North  ? 
Who    were    the    important    leaders    among    the  ,  abolitionists  ? 

2.  What  was  the  "gag  rule"  and  how  did  it  come  to  be  passed  ? 

3.  What  conditions  led  to  the  large  increase  in  the  number  and 
value  of  slaves  in  the  southern  states  ?     4.    What  were  Calhoun's 
arguments  in  defense  of  slavery  ? 

III.  i.    Why  is    the  "Wilmot    proviso"    remembered    in   our 
history  even  though  it  failed  to  become  a  law  ?     2.    Name  the 
important  events  and  conditions  that  led   to  the  Compromise  of 
1850?     What  were  the  provisions  of  the  Compromise?     Which 
of  these  were   favorable  to  the  North  and  which  to  the  South  ? 
3.    Why  did  the  South  demand  that  the  federal  government  pass 
a  fugitive  slave  law  ?     In  your  opinion,  considering  the  conditions 
that  existed,  was  this  demand  justified  ?     4.    Who  wrote  "Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin"?     Why  would  a  book  like  this  have  an  influence 
that  newspaper  articles  and  speeches  in  Congress  could  not  have 
in  increasing  the  feeling  against  slavery  ? 

IV.  i.   In  what  way  did  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Act  repeal  the 
Missouri   Compromise?     2.    What  was  meant  by  "squatter  sov 
ereignty  "  ?     Why  was  it  hoped  that  this  might  settle  the  slavery 
quarrel  ?     Why  was  this  hope  given  up  ?      3.    Name  the  steps  that 
led  to  the  formation  of  the  Republican  party.     What  other  politi 
cal  parties  opposed  to  the  extension  of  slavery  had  preceded  it  ? 
What  important  party  did  it  displace  ?     4.    Why  was  the  Dred 
Scott  decision  unpopular  in  the  North  ?     5.    State  the  important 
differences  between  the  position  taken  by  Douglas  and  that  taken 
by  Lincoln  in  the  Lincoln-Douglas  debates. 

Review:  I.  From  the  table  of  presidents  (Appendix,  p.  641) 
find  the  administration  in  which  each  of  the  following  events 
occurred:  The  Missouri  Compromise;  the  passage  of  the  "gag 
rule";  the  Compromise  of  1850;  the  Kansas-Nebraska  act;  the 
Dred  Scott  decision;  the  Lincoln-Douglas  debates;  "border 
warfare"  in  Kansas.  2.  Each  of  the  following  dates  is  connected 


THE  GREAT   POLITICAL  CONFLICT  389 

with  an  important  event  relating  to  slavery.  Find  out  what  the 
event  was  and  why  it  is  considered  important:  1619,  1787,  1789, 
1808,  1820,  1846,  1850,  1854,  1857,  1858. 


PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Imagine  yourself  living   on   a   southern   plantation   during 
slavery  days.     Give  an  account  of  how  the  work  of  the  plantation 
was  done  and  how  the  slaves  were  treated. 

See  Hart's  " Romance  of  the  Civil  War,"  pp.  1-8,  9-13, 
18-28. 

2.  The  Kansas-Nebraska  Act  has  been  said  to  be  "the  most 
momentous  piece  of  legislation  in  the  United  States  before  the 
Civil  War."     Give  as  many  reasons  as  you  can  for  considering  it 
so  important. 

See  Elson's  "Side-Lights  on  American  History,"  vol.  i,  ch. 
xv ;  Hart's  "Source  Book,"  pp.  284-287;  Nicolay's  "Abraham 
Lincoln,"  pp.  94-107;  Sparks's  "The  Men  Who  Made  the  Na 
tion,"  pp.  378-383- 

3.  Select  one  of  the  following  men  for  special  study.     Be  ready 
to  tell  the  class  what  this  man  did  to  make  his  name  remembered 
in  connection  with  this  important  period  of  American  history : 

Henry  Clay:  See  Southworth's  "Builders  of  Our  Country," 
Book  II,  pp.  158-165;  Sparks's  "The  Men  Who  Made  the  Na 
tion,"  ch.  viii ;  Elson's  "Side-Lights  on  American  History,"  vol.  i, 
pp.  225-229. 

Daniel  .Wejbsterj  See  Brooks's  "Stories  of  the  Old  Bay  State," 
192-199;  Southworth's  "Builders  of  Our  Country,"  Book  II, 
pp.  166-175  '•>  Sparks's  "The  Men  Who  Made  the  Nation,"  ch.  x. 

Stephen_A.__Douglas :  See  Elson's  "Side-Lights  on  American 
History,"  vol.  i,  pp.  300-336;  Nicolay's  "Abraham  Lincoln"  (see 
references  under  Douglas  in  the  index);  Hart's  "Source  Book," 
pp.  291-294. 

John  CLjCaJJbQiin  :    See  Hart's  "Source  Book,"   pp.   234-237. 

4.  Tell  the  story  of  Lincoln's  life  with  reference  to  the  part 
that  he  played  in  the  events  described  in  this  chapter. 

See  Nicolay's  "Abraham  Lincoln,"  chs.  vi,  vii,  viii,  ix  ;  Wheeler's 
"  Abraham  Xincoln,"  cKs.  xTv,  xv ;  Southworth's  "Builders  of 
Our  Country,"  Book  II,  pp.  199-205;  Sparks's  "The  Men  Who 
Made  the  Nation,"  pp.  378-390. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE   CIVIL  WAR 

I.  SECESSION 

When  the  news  of  Lincoln's  election  was  received,  the 
more  determined  southern  leaders  prepared  to  take  their 
states  out  of  the  Union.  South  Carolina  led  the  way. 
The  voters  were  ordered  by  the  state  legislature  to  elect 
delegates  to  a  convention  which  met  in  Charleston  on 
December  17,  1860.  After  a  few  days  of  debate  the  con 
vention  passed  a  resolution  declaring  that  the  union 
between  South  Carolina  and  the  other  states  was  dis 
solved,  and  that  South  Carolina  would  take  her  place 
among  the  "free  and  independent  nations  of  the  earth." 
Other  states  to  the  far  south  followed  the  example  set  by 
South  Carolina.  Before  March  4,  1861,  the  time  for  the 
inauguration  of  Lincoln,  Mississippi,  Florida,  Alabama, 
Georgia,  Louisiana,  and  Texas  had  seceded  and  proclaimed 
their  independence. 

In  withdrawing  from  the  Union  the  southern  leaders 
declared  that  they  were  acting  lawfully  for  these  reasons  : 
(i)  the  treaty  of  1783  with  Great  Britain  had  recognized 
each  state  by  name  as  free  and  independent ;  (2)  the 
Articles  of  Confederation  had  expressly  recognized  that 
each  state  was  "sovereign";  (3)  the  Constitution  had 
been  made  by  agreement  among  free  and  equal  states ; 
and  (4)  sovereign  states  had  a  legal  and  moral  right  to 
cancel  such  an  agreement. 

390 


s  <s 


THE  CIVIL  WAR  391 

The  Confederate  States  of  America.  —  In  order  to  main 
tain  their  independence  and  defend  themselves,  in  case 
the  government  of  the  United  States  should  attempt  by 
force  to  keep  them  under  the  Stars  and  Stripes,  these  seven 
states  sent  delegates  to  a  conven 
tion  held  in  Montgomery,  Ala 
bama,  on  February  4,  1861,  for 
the  purpose  of  forming  a  Union  of 
their  own.  The  delegates  drafted 
a  plan  of  government  in  many  re 
spects  like  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States.  It  did  not  leave 
untouched,  however,  the  question 
whether  a  state  could  withdraw 

from  the   Union ;   on   the    contrary, 

JEFFERSON  DAVIS 
it     expressly     declared     that     each 

state  was  free,  sovereign,  and  independent.  Moreover,  it 
adopted  the  name  "  Confederate  States  of  America,"  thus 
announcing  to  the  world  that  the  league  so  formed  was 
merely  an  association  of  independent  states.  The  Mont 
gomery  convention,  unlike  the  Philadelphia  convention  of 
1787,  which  had  even  refused  to  mention  slavery  in  the 
Constitution,  declared  that  the  protection  of  slavery  was 
one  of  the  prime  purposes  of  the  Confederacy.  In  order 
to  put  the  new  government  into  effect,  Jefferson  Davis, 
of  Mississippi,  was  elected  president,  and  Alexander  H. 
Stephens,  of  Georgia,  vice  president.  Davis  was  a  man 
of  undoubted  ability  and  courage,  who  had  long  defended 
the  rights  of  the  South  as  he  saw  them.  The  people  of  the 
Confederacy  looked  to  him,  with  confidence  and  affection, 
as  a  great  leader. 

Divided  Opinion  in  the  North.  --  In  the  North  various 
views  were  held  about  the  withdrawal  of  the  slave  states 
from  the  Union.  Many  of  the  radical  Abolitionists  rejoiced, 


392         THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

and  declared  that  they  were  happy  to  be  free  from  the 
union  with  the  slaveholders.  The  President  of  the  United 
States,  James  Buchanan,  though  he  regarded  the  action  of 
the  seceded  states  as  illegal,  lamely  announced  that  he 
had  no  power  to  compel  them  by  force  to  remain  in  the 
Union.  General  Scott,  commander  of  the  Army  of  the 
United  States,  while  he  felt  that  secession  was  deplorable, 
said  that  the  "  erring  states  "  should  be  permitted  to  go  their 
way  unmolested.  Horace  Greeley,  the  editor  of  the  New 
York  Tribune,  openly  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  South 
ern  states  had  a  perfect  right  to  form  a  union  of  their  own. 
The  Proposed  "  Crittenden  Compromise."  -  The  more  mod 
erate  men  on  both  sides,  particularly  the  leaders  from  what 
were  known  as  the  "  border  states  "  between  the  North  and 
the  far  South,  condemned  secession  in  strong  terms  and 
sought  to  arrange  a  compromise.  Senator  Crittenden,  of 
Kentucky,  proposed  in  Congress  an  amendment  to  the  Con 
stitution,  providing : 

(1)  that  the  territory  north  of  36°  30'  should  be  free,  and 
all  south  of  that  line,  slave ; 

(2)  that  all  states  thereafter  admitted  to  the  Union  should 
be  permitted  to- decide  for  themselves  whether  or  not  they 
would  have  slavery; 

(3)  that  the  United  States  should  pay  slave  owners  for 
any  slaves  that  escaped  to  the  North. 

Senator  Crittenden's  plan  was  rejected  by  the  Republi 
can  leaders.  With  the  approval  of  Lincoln  they  agreed 
upon  a  thirteenth  amendment  to  the  Constitution,  pro 
viding  that  no  amendment  should  ever  be  made  author 
izing  Congress  to  abolish  or  interfere  with  slavery  in  any 
of  the  states  of  the  Union.  Congress  passed,  it  by  the 
necessary  two-thirds  vote,  and  it  was  awaiting  the  approval 
of  the  states  when  the  clash  of  arms  came.  If  it  had  been 
adopted,  the  Thirteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution, 


THE   CIVIL  WAR  393 

instead  of  abolishing  slavery  throughout  the  United  States, 
would  have  made  it  perpetual  in  the  states  where  it  existed, 
unless  these  states  themselves  did  away  with  it. 

The  Leaders  on  Both  Sides  Stand  Firm.  —  Prominent 
leaders  on  both  sides  refused  to  listen  to  compromise. 
Jefferson  Davis  declared  that  Lincoln,  by  his  attacks  on 
slavery,  had  in  effect  declared  war  upon  Southern  institu 
tions,  and  that  a  conflict  between  the  two  sections  of  the 
country  was  inevitable.  He  added  that  if  war  must  come 
"  it  must  be  on  Northern  and  not  on  Southern  soil/'  This 
sounded  like  a  threat  of  invasion,  as  indeed  it  was  ;  for  Davis 
went  on  to  say  that  the  Southerners  would  carry  the  war  into 
the  densely  populated  cities  of  the  North  "  where  food  for 
the  sword  and  torch  awaits  our  armies."  Lincoln,  on  his 
part,  replied  that  "both  parties  deprecated  war ;  but  one 
of  them  would  make  war  rather  than  let  the  nation  survive, 
and  the  other  would  accept  war  rather  than  jet  it  perish." 
The  states  of  the  far  South  would  not  remain  in  the  Union 
except  upon  their  own  terms,  and  the  Republican  leaders 
would  neither  accept  their  terms  nor  allow  them  to  go  in 
peace  from  the  Union. 

Lincoln's  First  Inaugural  Address.  —  In  his  inaugural 
address  of  March  4,  1861,  Lincoln  declared  that  (i)  the 
Union  was  older  than  the  Constitution  and  independence ; 
(2)  that  it  was  intended  to  be  perpetual ;  (3)  that  the 
states  were  pledged  to  maintain  it ;  and  (4)  that  no  state 
merely  on  its  own  motion  had  the  right  to  withdraw  from 
it.  He  added  that  he  would,  to  the  extent  of  his  ability,  en 
force  the  federal  laws  in  all  the  states ;  and  that  he  would 
defend  and  maintain  the  Union.  He  closed  his  memorable 
address  by  saying  to  the  South  : 

In  your  hands,  my  dissatisfied  fellow  countrymen,  and  not  in 
mine,  is  the  momentous  issue  of  civil  war.  The  government  will  not 
assail  you.  You  can  have  no  conflict  without  being  yourselves 


394        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

the  aggressors.  You  have  no  oath  registered  in  heaven  to  destroy 
the  government,  while  /  shall  have  the  most  solemn  one  "to  pre 
serve,  protect,  and  defend  it."  I  am  loath  to  close.  We  are  not 
enemies,  but  friends.  We  must  not  be  enemies.  Though  passion 
may  have  strained,  it  must  not  break,  our  bonds  of  affection. 
The  mystic  chords  of  memory,  stretching  from  every  battle  field 
and  patriot  grave  to  every  living  heart  and  hearthstone  all  over 
this  broad  land,  will  yet  swell  the  chorus  of  the  Union,  when  again 
touched,  as  surely  they  will  be,  by  the  better  angels  of  our  nature. 


Fort  Sumter  Surrendered  (April  14,  1861).  —  As  the 
inaugural  address  showed,  Lincoln  was  determined  to 
maintain  the  Union.  Still,  hoping  for  a  peaceful  solution 
of  the  problem,  he  took  no  strong  measures  immediately, 
and  many  Southern  leaders  thought  that  the  people  of 
the  North  would  not  fight.  Indeed,  President  Davis  said 
that  they  would  not.  The  dispute  in  words  might  have 
gone  on  indefinitely,  if  the  government  at  Washington  had 
not  attempted  to  furnish  food  supplies  to  United  States 
troops  occupying  one  of  the  regular  government  posts, 
Fort  Sumter,  on  an  island  in  the  harbor  of  Charleston, 
South  Carolina.  In  April,  1861,  President  Lincoln  pre 
pared  to  send  relief.  He  informed  the  governor  of  South 
Carolina  that  he  had  decided  to  dispatch  aid  to  the 
virtually  imprisoned  federal  officers  at  Fort  Sumter.  The 
Confederates  regarded  this  as  an  act  of  war,  and  their 
gunners  in  the  Charleston  forts,  on  April  12,  1861,  began 
to  bombard  Fort  Sumter.  Two  days  later  the  federal 
commander,  Major  Anderson,  was  compelled  to  surrender. 
On  April  15,  President  Lincoln  issued  his  memorable 
proclamation  calling  for  seventy-five  thousand  volunteers. 
How  little  did  the  country  realize  the  seriousness  of  the 
struggle  thus  begun  ! 

Other  Southern  States  Secede. — When  the  first  shot 
was  fired,  those  who  had  been  slow  to  make  up  their  minds 


THE  CIVIL  WAR  395 

were  compelled  to  take  sides.  In  the  South,  the  middle 
tier  of  states,  Arkansas,  Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  and 
Virginia,  broke  from  the  Union  and  joined-  the  Con 
federacy.  In  all  these  states,  however,  the  citizens  were 
divided,  and  it  required  the  most  determined  action  on  the 
part  of  the  leaders,  especially  in  North  Carolina  and  Vir 
ginia,  to  carry  them  out  of  the  Union.  In  the  western 
part  of  Virginia  the  Union  sentiment  was  so  strong  that 
several  counties  were  altogether  opposed  to  secession.  Two 
years  later  they  and  a  number  of  additional  counties 
were  cut  away  from  the  Old  Dominion,  and  admitted  to 
the  Union  as  the  state  of  West  Virginia.  By  dint  of  hard 
labor  also,  the  northern  tier  of  Southern  states,  Maryland, 
Kentucky,  and  Missouri,1  was  kept  within  the  Union,  al 
though  thousands  of  their  citizens  desired  to  join  the  Con 
federacy,  and  either  went  over  to  the  Southern  armies,  or 
waged  war  on  their  Unionist  neighbors  at  home. 

yfljjtjb.^ 
II.    PREPARATIONS  FOR  WAR 

The  Advantages  of  the  South.  — At  the  outset  of  the  struggle 
the  Southern  states  had  certain  advantages.  They  had  been 
feverishly  preparing  for  war  for  months  before  the  inaugura 
tion  of  Lincoln,  and  had  taken  possession  of  the  federal  forts 
and  arsenals  within  their  borders.  Their  statesmen  had 
controlled  the  national  government  for  several  years  and 
had  left  it  weak  and  defenseless.  In  addition  to  men  and 
supplies,  the  South  had  able  and  devoted  generals,  like 
Robert  E.  Lee,  Thomas  J.  Jackson,  and  Joseph  E.  John 
ston,  who  had  been  well  trained  at  West  Point.  They 

1  In  Missouri  there  was  an  especially  severe  contest.  The  government  was 
in  the  hands  of  men  who  favored  secession  and  who  attempted  to  turn  the  state 
over  to  the  Southern  side.  Ry  the  efforts  of  the  Union  men,  led  by  Francis  P. 
Rlair  and  Genera!  Lvon,  the  state  government  was  overthrown.  While  the  ma 
jority  favored  the  Union,  there  was  a  strong  Southern  minority,  and  several 
months  of  righting  followed. 


396         THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

felt  bound  by  allegiance  to  their  native  states  to  place  them 
selves  at  the  service  of  the  Confederacy.  In  the  control  of 
an  aristocracy,  brave  and  dashing,  the  Southern  states  were 
a  foe  that  had  to  be  taken  seriously. 

The  Advantages  of  the  North. --The  North,  on  the  other 
hand,  had  many  things  in  its  favor.  The  total  population 
of  the  country  was  about  31,000,000  in  round  numbers.  A 
little  more  than  22,000,000  lived  in  the  Northern  states ; 
of  the  Southern  population,  more  than  3,500,000  were  slaves. 
The  white  males  of  the  South,  of  all  ages,  numbered  less 
than  3,000,000;  before  the  war  was  brought  to  an  end  the 
North  had  put  almost  as  many  soldiers  in  the  field.  Nearly 
all  the  manufacturing  establishments  in  the  country,  par 
ticularly  the  iron,  steel,  and  munitions  plants,  were  in  the 
North.  The  South  was  consequently  under  the  necessity 
of  securing  a  very  large  portion  of  her  military  supplies 
from  England. 

The  wealth  of  the  North  was  many  times  greater  than 
that  of  the  South,  and  the  federal  government  was  better 
able  to  borrow  money  to  carry  on  the  war.  The  Southern 
people  depended  for  money  largely  upon  the  sale  of  their 
cotton  crop  in  the  North  and  in  Europe.  The  North  was 
soon  able  to  ruin  the  export  and  import  trade  of  the 
Confederate  States  by  blockading  all  the  coast  and  captur 
ing  vessels  that  attempted  to  enter  or  clear  from  the  har 
bors.  As  a  result  of  this  blockade,  the  amount  of  cotton 
exported  fell  from  $202,000,000  in  1860  to  $42,000,000  in 
1861,  and  to  $4,000,000  in  1862.  Having  tlie  weight  of  men 
and  money  and  material  resources  on  her  side,  the  North 
was  bound  to  win,  unless  the  South  could  strike  terror  into 
the  country  by  a  series  of  quick  and  brilliant  victories. 

Confidence  of  Victory  on  Both  Sides.  —  Each  side,  thinking 
of  its  strength,  rather  than  its  weakness,  began  the  war  in 
high  confidence.  President  Davis  evidently  thought  it 


THE  CIVIL  WAR  397 

would  be  only  a  short  time  before  the  victorious  Southern 
army  would  be  in  the  very  heart  of  the  North.  President 
Lincoln's  call  for  seventy-five  thousand  men  to  serve  three 
months  seemed  to  imply  that  the  Northern  government,  too, 
believed  in  its  own  early  triumph.  Both  sides  were  deceived 
in  their  hopes  and  were  soon  awake  to  the  seriousness  of  the 
task  before  them.  The  first  blood  was  shed  on  April  19, 
1861,  when  some  soldiers  of  the  Sixth  Massachusetts  Regi 
ment  were  attacked  in  Baltimore  and  several  men  were  killed 
and  wounded.  Not  until  four  years  later  -  April  9,  1865 
-  did  the  Confederate  army  under  General  Lee  lay  down 
its  arms  at  Appomattox. 

The  Volunteer  System  Gives  Way  to  Conscription. 
When  the  war  began,  both  sides  relied  on  volunteers  to  do 
the  fighting.  Before  long  they  had  to  resort  to  drafting 
soldiers  into  their  armies.  In  the  South  practically  every 
able-bodied  white  male  capable  of  bearing  arms  was  in  time 
drawn  into  the  war.  In  the  North,  where  more  men  were 
available,  drafting  by  lot  left  a  much  larger  proportion  at 
home.  Under  the  federal  conscription  law  of  i<S6^  ir  was 
provided  by  the  government  that  each  state  should  fur 
nish  a  certain  number  of  soldiers,  and  it  was  then  decided  by 
lot  who  should  go.  This  drafting  of  soldiers  was  resisted 
in  New  York,  where  riots  broke  out  and  many  people  were 
killed.  A  bad  feature  of  the.  law  was  the  provision  that 
any  one  who  was  drawn  by  lot  could  escape  military  service 
by  paying  $300  for  a  ''substitute."  In  this  way,  the  well- 
to-do  could  avoid  military  service,  and  the  poor  man  who 
could  not  raise  that  amount  of  money  had  to  go  whether  he 
liked  it  or  not. 

War  Plans  of  the  North.  -  It  is  impossible  here  to  describe 
all  the  important  battles  and  engagements  of  the  long  war, 
and  merely  to  enumerate  them  in  their  order  would  only 
lead  to  confusion  in  the  mind  of  the  reader.  Moreover, 


398        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

they  were  all  fought  in  some  relation  to  one  another  and  to 
larger  plans  which  the  authorities  on  both  sides  had  in  mind, 
and  must  be  considered  in  that  connection.  The  important 
features  of  Northern  policy  may  be  briefly  stated  : 

1.  Saving  the  border  states  to  the  Union  through  early 
occupation  by  federal  troops. 

2.  Splitting  the  Confederacy  into  two  parts  by  a  drive 
down  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

3.  Cutting  off  the  supplies  obtained  by  the.  Confederacy 
in   Europe   by   the   establishment   of  a   naval   blockade   of 
Southern  ports. 

4.  A  blow  at  the  heart  of  the  Confederacy  by  the  capture 
of  the  capital,  Richmond,  Virginia. 

If  we  consider  these  movements  in  order  of  time  and  with 
relation  to  geography,  it  helps  the  memory  to  divide  them 
as  follows  : 

The  Campaigns  of  1861  and  1862 

a.  Saving  the  Border  States 

b.  The  Eastern  Campaigns 

c.  The  Western  Campaigns 

The  Emancipation  Proclamation  (Jan.  I,  1863) 
The  War  on  Water 
The  Campaigns  of  1863 

a.  The  Eastern  Campaigns 

b.  The  Western  Campaigns 
The  Campaigns  of  1864  and  1865 


III.   THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF  1861  AND  1862 

Early  Union  Reverses  in  the  East.  The  Battle  of  Bull  Run 
(July  21,  1861).  —  In  the  East  the  Confederates  were  es 
pecially  well  prepared.  They  established  their  capital  at 
Richmond,  Virginia,  and  mobilized  in  that  state  strong 
armies  of  disciplined  soldiers  commanded  by  able  officers. 
They  formed  a  solid  defensive  front  for  the  seceded  states, 


THE   CIVIL  WAR  399 

and  were,  besides,  a  constant  menace  to  the  capital  of  the 
Union. 

President  Lincoln  realized  the  grave  danger;  but  swift  ac 
tion  to  avert  it  was  impossible.  The  regular  army  of  the 
United  States,  after  the  withdrawal  of  the  Southern  states, 
was  only  a  handful.  The  call  for  volunteers  was  enthusiasti 
cally  answered  throughout  the  North  and  by  midsummer 
nearly  200,000  loyal  men  were  under  arms.  To  pit  these  raw 
and  untrained  troops  at  once  against  the  armies  in  Virginia 
was  to  invite  disaster,  and  yet  all  the  time  the  country  was 
clamoring  for  immediate  action.  "On  to  Richmond!"  was 
flung  out  on  banners  and  cried  in  the  streets. 

The  clamor  could  not  be  resisted,  and  General  McDowell, 
in  command  of  federal  troops,  was  ordered  to  attack  the 
Southern  general,  Beauregard,  stationed  in  northern  Virginia. 
Prophecies  of  cautious  military  men  were  more  than  fulfilled. 
On  the  field  of  Bull  Run,  less  than  a  day's  horseback  ride 
southwest  of  Washington,  the  untrained  federal  army,  after 
fighting  bravely  for  many  hours,  crumpled  up  and  was  driven 
from  the  field  in  utter  rout.  It  was  in  this  battle  that  the 
Confederate  general,  Thomas  J.  Jackson,  stood  out  so 
bravely  against  the  assaults  of  the  Union  troops  that  he 
won  for  himself  the  title  of  "  Stonewall "  by  which  he  was 
ever  afterwards  known. 

McClellan's  Unsuccessful  Campaign.  —  After  this  dis 
astrous  defeat  the  North  began  to  realize  better  what  a 
formidable  task  lay  before  it.  General  McClellan,  in  com 
mand  of  the  Union  troops  protecting  Washington,  set 
about  drilling  his  soldiers  and  properly  equipping  his  army 
for  great  campaigns.  It  was  not  until  the  spring  of  1862 
that  he  was  ready  for  action,  and  even  then  he  was  so  cau 
tious  that  he  was  severely  criticized  on  every  hand  for  de 
lays  and  slow  movements.  However,  in  May,  1862,  his 
army  was  within  a  few  miles  of  Richmond  and  it  looked  as 


400        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


if  victory  might  be  at  hand.  But  in  the  battle  of  Seven 
Days  (June  26-July  2,  1862)  McClellan  was  forced  back, 
and  all  hope  of  the  immediate  capture  of  Richmond  had  to 
be  abandoned.  A  little  later  in  that  year  the  Union  troops, 
under  General  Pope,  were  again  beaten  at  a  second  battle 
of  Bull  Run  and  driven  back  toward  Washington. 


V  '  ^Ge«y"»'S\  ^T 

V      Un  1^^'^.ft  "~        "   \ ""!««   N.  J. 


FIELD  OF  MANY  OF  THE  BATTLES  OF  THE  WAR 

Lee  Invades  Maryland  (1862).  Antietam  and  Fredericks- 
burg. — The  spirit  of  the  Southern  troops  was  now  at  a 
high  point  and  General  Lee  boldly  invaded  Maryland.  In 
September,  1862,  McClellan  with  much  larger  forces  at 
tacked  Lee's  army,  and  in  the  battle  of  Antietam  gained 
an  advantage  which  was  regarded  in  the  North  as  a  victory, 
although  he  lost  more  men  than  the  Confederates.  General 
Lee  viewed  it  as  a  drawn  battle,  but  retreated  into  Virginia 
to  reorganize.  Had  General  McClellan  acted  with  more  zeal 


THE   CIVIL  WAR  401 

he  might  have  inflicted  a  real  defeat  on  the  Southern  troops, 
Such  at  least  was  the  view  taken  by  the  authorities  at 
Washington,  and  he  was  removed 
from  his  command. 

His  successor,  General  Burnside, 
was   even  less   fortunate.      In    the 
battle    of    Fredericksburg,    in    De 
cember,  1862,  he  was  badly  defeated 
in    an   attempt   to    storm    General 
Lee's    fortified    posts    on    Marye's 
Heights  behind  the  town   of  Fred 
ericksburg    on    the    Rappahannock 
River.     Having  needlessly  sacrificed 
thousands  of  brave   soldiers,  Burn- 
side    gave    up    his    post    in    despair    and    General   Joseph 
Hooker  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
At  the  close  of  the  year  1862,  everything  looked  discourag 
ing  for  the  Union  in  the  eastern  theater  of  the  war. 

Union  Successes  in  the  West.  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson 
Captured.  —  In  the  West  the  Northern  armies  were  more 
successful.  In  that  section  there  were  two  generals  of  un 
doubted  talent,  Ulysses  Simpson  Grant,  a  graduate  of 
West  Point,  who  had  seen  real  fighting  in  the  Mexican 
War,  and  George  H.  Thomas.  By  the  opening  of  1862, 
these  commanders  had  made  sure  that  Kentucky  was 
safely  held  for  the  Union.  In  February,  1862,  General 
Grant,  aided  by  Commodore  Foote  in  charge  of  a  fleet  of 
gunboats,  captured  two  Confederate  strongholds,  Fort 
Henry  on  the  Tennessee  River,  and  Fort  Donelson  on  the 
Cumberland  River.  Thus  the  way  was  opened  for  a  drive 
southward  through  Tennessee. 

The  Struggle  for  Missouri  and  Arkansas. —  In  Missouri 
strong  forces  had  been  raised  on  both  sides.  The  Confeder 
ates  under  General  Price,  reenforced  by  Arkansas  troops, 

2D 


402        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


THE  WAR  IN  THE  WEST 


THE  CIVIL  WAR  403 

defeated  the  Unionists  under  General  Lyon  at  Wilson's  Creek 
in  August,  1861.  Southern  Missouri  was  recovered  to  the 
Union  a  few  months  later,  however,  and  the  Confederate 
army  was  pushed  southward  into  Arkansas.  The  Union 
victory  at  Pea  Ridge  (March,  1862)  practically  decided  the 
war  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

Farragut  Captures  New  Orleans.  Battles  of  Shiloh  and 
Murfreesboro.  —  In  April,  1862,  the  North  was  thrilled  by 
the  news  that  Admiral  Farragut  had  steamed  into  the  Mis 
sissippi,  bombarded  the  forts  at  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
destroyed  the  Confederate  fleet,  and  captured  the  city  of 
New  Orleans.  A  month  later,  by  a  series  of  desperate 
actions,  including  battles  at  Shiloh,  or  Pittsburg  Land 
ing,  and  Murfreesboro,  Union  troops  in  the  West  had  driven 
their  battle  line  down  to  the  northern  borders  of  Missis 
sippi,  Alabama,  and  Georgia,  to  the  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  West  of  the  river  the  battle  line  had  moved  down 
almost  to  the  Arkansas  River  before  the  close  of  1862. 


IV.    EMANCIPATION 

A  Bold  Blow  at  Southern  Power.  —  In  spite  of  the  west 
ern  successes  and  the  belief  that  the  Army  of  the  Potomac 
would  be  able  to  hold  the  Confederate  Army  of  Vir 
ginia,  it  was  plain  to  all,  at  the  end  of  twelve  months' 
fighting,  that  a  great  struggle  lay  before  the  government 
of  the  United  States,  if  it  was  to  be  victorious.  The  North 
was  full  of  Southern  sympathizers,  "  Copperheads,"  they 
were  called,  who  urged  peace  at  any  price;  and  in  every 
section  there  were  faint-hearted  loyalists  who  looked  upon 
the  war  as  a  failure  or  at  best  a  deadlock. 

In  the  summer  of  1862,  it  was  evident  that  something 
heroic  was  necessary  to  reassure  the  faith  of  the  North,  to 
baptize  the  people  with  a  new  fire,  and  to  deliver  a  more 


404        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

telling  blow  at  Southern  strength.  Then  it  was  that 
diplomacy  was  added  to  military  strategy.  The  true  source 
of  Southern  power  was  the  devotion  of  the  slaves  who  tilled 
the  soil,  kept  order  at  home,  and  supplied  the  armies  in  the 
field.  To  strike  at  slavery  was  to  strike  at  the  very  heart 
of  Southern  military  strength.  It  was  more  than  that.  To 
abolish  it  was  to  make  the  war  for  Union,  a  lofty  ideal  in 
itself,  still  more  appealing  to  the  hearts  of  men  and  women 
in  the  North  by  enlarging  it  into  a  war  for  freedom. 

Lincoln  Decides  on  Emancipation.  —  It  required  courage 
and  faith  to  take  the  step.  Idealists  had  long  urged  it 
upon  Lincoln ;  military  commanders  in  need  of  laborers 
and  soldiers  had  demanded  it ;  but  he  had  held  back.  Not 
until  he  became  convinced  that  it  was  a  military  measure 
necessary  to  the  salvation  of  the  Union  did  he  yield  to 
the  insistent  demands  of  the  friends  of  abolition.  In  the 
autumn  of  1862,  he  "  vowed  to  God  "  that  if  General 
McClellan  was  victorious  over  the  army  of  Virginia  at  the 
battle  of  Antietam,  he  would  issue  a  proclamation  of  eman 
cipation.  Although  McClellan  did  not  win  a  glorious  victory, 
his  success  was  regarded  as  a  distinct  gain  for  the  North. 
The  danger  that  the  Army  of  Virginia  might  strike  a  mortal 
blow  at  the  National  Capital  and  invade  the  heart  of  the 
North  seemed  averted.  On  September  22,  1862,  therefore, 
Lincoln  announced  that  if  the  Confederate  States  did  not  come 
back  into  the  Union  before  January  I,  1863,  he  would  pro 
claim  the  slaves  within  those  states  forever  free.  The  Confed 
eracy  regarded  this  as  an  idle  threat.  But  on  January  I,  1863, 
Lincoln,  exercising  his  war  power  as  Commander-in-chief  of 
the  Army  and  Navy,  issued  the  Proclamation  of  Emancipa 
tion,  freeing  all  the  slaves  within  the  territory  then  held  by 
the  Confederate  army. 

Emancipation  and  Abolition.  --  Inasmuch  as  the  Emanci 
pation  Proclamation  is  commonly  misunderstood,  attention 


THE  CIVIL  WAR 


405 


should  be  called  to  two  special  points,  (i)  The  procla 
mation  did  not  abolish  slavery ;  it  merely  emancipated  or 
freed  the  slaves  in  that  part  of  the  country  waging  war 
against  the  government  of  the  United  States.  Slavery 
continued  to  exist  after  the  proclamation  in  those  slave 


ift,,, 


'-'^^MliirfjS  5^^K%  fES* 


i^:?^] 1  f|£  j  plpf  ,«S  I  iSWlll 

1®  syfeilj  (®i  i«  f  H  lypHlSI 

fj   ^ .  i    i-.  • Y-  *  :•  '•>  v  i  «s»ias:  7  :.i  .1  •  -  Vy.;..  .•  ".smiL  »Kfl&M 


SCENE  IN  CONGRESS  AT  THE  TIME  OF  THE  PASSAGE  OF  THE  THIRTEENTH  AMEND 
MENT  TO  THE  CONSTITUTION 

states  which  had  not  seceded,  namely,  Delaware,  Maryland, 
West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri,  and  also  in  Ten 
nessee  and  those  parts  of  Louisiana  and  Virginia  occupied 
by  the  Union  army.  (2)  It  was  not  certain  whether  this 
emancipation  of  the  slaves  could  be  sustained  after  the 
war  was  over,  because  Lincoln  had  no  civil  authority  over 
slavery.  As  Commander-in-chief  of  the  Army  of  the 
United  States,  he  could  do  almost  anything  that  would 


406        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

help  the  Northern  cause.  Naturally  this  great  power 
would  be  curtailed  when  the  armed  conflict  was  closed. 
Some  claimed,  therefore,  that  emancipation  could  last 
only  during  the  period  of  actual  warfare.  To  seal  it  for 
all  time,  the  Thirteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States  was  adopted  in  1865,  abolishing 
slavery  throughout  the  United  States. 

The  Effect  of  Emancipation  Abroad.  —  Emancipation  gave 
a  new  aspect  to  the  war.  It  stamped  it  as  a  war  of  freedom 
against  bondage.  All  along,  the  Northern  cause  had  been 
viewed  with  hostility  and  derision  by  the  aristocracies  and 
upper  classes  of  Europe.  It  is  estimated  that  "  four  fifths 
of  the  British  House  of  Lords  and  most  members  of  the 
House  of  Commons  "  were  in  sympathy  with  the  South  and 
anxious  to  see  the  Union  broken  up  as  a  "  republican  fail 
ure/'  Only  a  few  great  English  leaders,  like  John  Bright, 
ardently  gave  their  hearts  to  Lincoln  and  the  North. 

With  the  English  common  people  it  was  different.  Al 
though  driven  to  the  verge  of  starvation  by  the  closing  of  the 
cotton  mills,  they  felt  that  the  North  was  right  and  should 
triumph.  After  emancipation  they  were  even  more  fixed 
in  this  view,  and  their  anti-slavery  sentiment  was  largely 
responsible  for  blocking  intervention  by  the  British  govern 
ment  in  favor  of  the  Confederacy.  More  than  once  the 
French  emperor,  Napoleon  III,  had  suggested  interference 
in  America,  but  the  British  authorities  postponed  action. 
Napoleon  then  had  the  effrontery  to  suggest  it  directly  to 
the  government  at  Washington,  only  to  be  instantly  re 
buffed.  He  realized  that  he  could  not  accomplish  the  result 
alone,  and,  when  British  cooperation  was  not  forthcoming, 
he  gave  up  trying  to  aid  the  South  in  destroying  the 
Union. 

Lincoln.  —  Never  had  mortal  man  greater  burdens  to 
carry  or  more  trying  problems  to  solve  than  Lincoln.  He 


THE   CIVIL  WAR 


407 


-  LINCON""       POS 

ENTED  -TO  HIS   COMRADES  OF  LSM 
pr 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN 
From  a  photograph  of  Borglum's  statue  of  Abraham  Lincoln  in  Newark. 


408        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

had  behind  him  a  divided  country.  Thousands  of  North 
ern  people,  in  open  sympathy  with  the  South,  did  every 
thing  they  could  to  hamper  the  raising  of  men  and  money 
and  the  successful  prosecution  of  the  war.  Another  large 
group,  though  loyal  to  the  Union,  was  horrified  by  the  dis 
asters  and  the  misery  of  war  and  ready  on  every  occasion 
to  urge  peace  at  any  price.  So  strong  was  the  opposition 
that  the  Democrats,  in  1864,  with  General  McClellan  as  their 
candidate  for  President,  were  able  to  poll  in  the  Union 
states  alone  1,800,000  votes,  although  "  the  Great  Emanci 
pator  "  was  reflected  by  a  safe  majority. 

Republican  politicians  nearly  drove  Lincoln  frantic  in 
their  efforts  to  get  "  jobs  "  in  the  government  for  their 
constituents.  Democrats  accused  him  of  prolonging  the 
war  in  order  to  satisfy  the  munition  makers  and  con 
tractors  who  made  profits  out  of  supplies.  Friends  of 
army  officers  daily  besieged  him  for  promotions  and 
favors.  Mothers  and  fathers  whose  sons  were  sentenced 
to  be  shot  for  desertion  or  neglect  ,of  duty  beset  him  at 
every  turn  with  petitions  for  pardon.  With  simplicity  of 
heart,  toleration,  infinite  patience,  and  good  nature,  he  en 
dured  it  all,  trying  always  to  do  the  right  as  it  was  given 
him  to  see  it. 

V.   THE  WAR  ON  WATER 

The  Control  of  the  Sea  the  Key  to  Union  Success.  -  -  The 
chief  reliance  of  the  South  before  the  war  was,  as  we  have 
said,  on  its  cotton.  In  1860  Southern  plantations  pro 
duced  4,700,000  bales  of  cotton,  a  very  large  portion  of  which 
was  sold  in  England.  If  the  seas  could  have  been  kept 
open  and  the  millions  of  bales  exchanged  for  munitions 
and  other  supplies,  the  power  of  the  South  would  have 
been  more  than  doubled.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
conflict  was  waged  on  Southern  soil  and  that  the  men 


THE  CIVIL  WAR 


409 


and  equipment  of  the  Union  army  had  to  be  transported 
far  from  the  Northern  bases,  it  is  certain  that  the  South, 
if  adequately  supported  by  guns,  food,  and  money,  could 
have  made  the  conflict  infinitely  more  desperate,  perhaps 
so  desperate  that  the  outcome  would  have  been  far  different. 
Weakness  of  the  Navy  at  the  Outset  of  the  War.  —  It  was 
in  cutting  the  sources  of  Southern  supplies  that  the  navy 
of  the  United  States  did  its  great  work,  and  if  it  had  been 
stronger  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  it  might  have  reduced 
the  struggle  by  many  months.  It  is  estimated  that  there 
were  only  about  thirteen  vessels, 
eight  steamships,  and  five  sailing 
ships,  ready  for  service  in  American 
waters  when  war  began.  There 
were  other  American  ships  abroad, 
which  were  recalled.  The  entire 
navy,  however,  including  even 
little  vessels,  those  laid  up  for 
repairs,  and  those  condemned  as 
obsolete,  numbered  only  ninety 
ships  in  all. 


THE    BLOCKADE    OF    THE    SOUTHERN    COAST   TO    CUT    OFF   TRADE    BETWEEN 
EUROPE  AND  THE  SOUTH 

The  Blockade.  — With  this  mere  handful  of  vessels  Presi 
dent  Lincoln  determined  to  cut  off  all  trade  between  Europe 


410        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

and  the  South.  Early  in  1861  he  declared  the  coast  from 
Virginia  all  the  way  to  Texas  blockaded  ;  and  he  ordered 
warships  scattered  along  this  stretch  of  seashore,  particu 
larly  at  seaports,  for  the  purpose  of  stopping  and  capturing 
all  ships  that  attempted  to  go  in  or  out  of  Southern 
harbors,  whether  they  were  Confederate  ships  or  English 
ships  or  those  of  any  other  foreign  country. 

The  "  Blockade  Runners"  -  At  first  much  cotton  was 
smuggled  out  through  the  blockade  and  great  supplies 
of  munitions  were  smuggled  in.  In  England  and  in 
the  South  many  swift  steamships,  called  "  blockade  run 
ners,"  were  built  for  the  purpose  of  eluding  the  United 
States  warships  stationed  off  the  coasts.  On  dark  nights 
or  when  storms  were  raging,  these  "  runners,"  heavily  laden 
with  cotton  or  supplies,  would  dash  into  or  out  of  the  closed 
ports,  escaping  the  warships  sent  to  capture  them.  As  the 
Union  navy  increased  in  size,  the  net  drawn  around  the 
Southern  seacoast  grew  tighter  and  tighter,  until  at  last 
the  "  blockade  runners  "  took  such  desperate  chances  that 
the  business  ceased  to  be  profitable. 

Success  of  the  Blockade.  —  It  is  estimated  that  during  the 
blockade  more  than  15,000  ships  were  captured.  In  the 
closing  year  of  the  war  the  South  was  able  to  deliver 
only  a  few  thousand  bales  in  foreign  markets.  War  sup 
plies  from  abroad  were  practically  cut  off,  and  it  was 
impossible  to  borrow  more  money  abroad.  For  instance, 
in  1863  the  Southern  government  negotiated  a  loan  of 
$i 50,000,000  abroad,  agreeing  to  redeem  the  bonds  in 
cotton,  but  it  could  not  deliver  the  cotton. 

Even  if  money  could  have  been  procured  in  sufficient 
quantities  abroad,  it  would  have  done  the  South  little 
good,  because  it  needed  not  gold  and  silver  but  the  supplies 
which  gold  and  silver  could  buy.  As  a  Southern  leader 
said,  the  South  was  not  defeated  but  "choked  to  death." 


THE  CIVIL  WAR  411 

The  work  of  the  blockaders  out  at  sea  did  not  excite  much 
attention  in  the  country.  There  were  no  opportunities  to 
make  great  naval  heroes  out  of  those  watchers,  but  they 
kept  at  their  posts  day  and  night,  winter  and  summer,  in 
stormy  and  pleasant  weather.  Upon  the  ceaseless  vigilance 
of  the  sailors,  as  well  as  the  valor  of  the  soldiers,  the  success 
of  the  North  depended. 

Attacks  on  Northern  Commerce.  —  Although  blockaded,  the 
South  was  able  to  keep  a  few  warships  and  privateers  at 
sea,  preying  on  Northern  commerce.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  war,  American  merchant  vessels  were  trading  with 
every  port  in  the  world,  and  as  the  war  went  on,  of  course 
this  trade  increased.  Seeing  its  own  commerce  destroyed, 
the  South  sought  to  capture  and  burn  Northern  merchant 
men  wherever  they  could  be  found.  One  of  the  Southern 
destroyers  escaped  from  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  in  the 
summer  of  1861,  and  managed  to  spread  ruin  at  sea  for 
several  months.  In  the  pursuit  and  capture  or  destruction 
of  these  ships,  Northern  cruisers  had  to  fight  many  battles. 

The  Alabama.  —  Other  sea  rovers  were  built  and  equipped 
in  English  ports  with  the  connivance  or  toleration  of 
the  English  government  in  violation  of  international  law. 
One  of  these,  the  Alabama,  was  built  at  Liverpool,  and  for 
two  years  cruised  the  ocean,  destroying  two  or  three  mer 
chant  vessels  every  month.  She  was  at  last  caught,  in 
June,  1864,  and  sent  to  the  bottom  of  the  English  Channel 
by  the  warship  Kearsarge.  England,  as  we  shall  see,  was 
compelled  to  pay  heavily  for  some  of  the  losses  inflicted  on 
American  ships  by  the  raiders  fitted  out  in  her  ports.1 

1  In  1861  a  Union  vessel  overhauled  the  British  ship  Trent  and  seized  two  com 
missioners  of  the  Confederate  government,  Mason  and  Slidell,  who  were  hound 
for  England.  This  high-handed  action,  which  savored  of  British  conduct  before 
the  War  of  1812,  was  the  suhicrt  of  a  vigorous  protest  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain. 
The  government  at  Washington  promptly  acknowledged  that  it  was  in  the  wrong 
and  permitted  the  two  commissioners  to  proceed  to  England.  Thus  the  "Trent 
Affair"  was  settled. 


412        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

The  Merrimac  and  the  Monitor  (1862).  —  In  addition  to 
blockading  the  coast  and  capturing  ships  preying  on  Northern 
commerce,  the  navy  of  the  United  States  had  to  meet  a 
new  kind  of  foe.  The  Confederates  in  Portsmouth,  Vir 
ginia,  transformed  a  steamer  known  as  the  Merrimac  into 
an  ironclad  ram  which  played  havoc  with  the  old  wooden 
warships,  such  as  the  Cumberland  and  the  Congress.  Unless 
a  new  type  of  ship  could  be  devised  this  iron  monster  and 


BATTLE  BETWEEN  THE  Monitor  AND  THE  Merrimac,  THE  FIRST  BATTLE 
BETWEEN  IRON-CLAD  SHIPS 

others  like  it  might  sweep  the  blockading  ships  from  the 
seas. 

Northern  ingenuity  was  equal  to  Southern  skill.  Captain 
John  Ericsson  designed  and  built  at  New  York  his  famous 
Monitor.  This  curious  vessel  had  a  small  iron  hull,  and  on 
top  of  the  deck  was  built  a  round  iron  turret,  carrying  two 
guns,  which  could  be  revolved  by  machinery  and  so 
fired  in  any  direction.  The  Southerners  called  the  boat  "  a 
Yankee  cheese  box  on  a  raft."  She  was  taken  down  to 
Hampton  Roads  in  the  spring  of  1862,  just  when  the  Mer 
rimac  had  started  on  a  career  of  destruction. 

On  the  morning  of  March  9,  the  two  ironclads  fought 


THE  CIVIL  WAR  413 

a  desperate  battle  without  coming  to  a  final  decision. 
Blinded  temporarily  by  a  shell  which  struck  his,  watch 
tower,  the  commander  of  the  Monitor  withdrew  his  ship 
from  the  fight  and  the  Merrimac  steamed  back  to  Norfolk. 
The  Confederates  regarded  the  outcome  as  a  victory,  but 
the  career  of  the  Merrimac  as  a  commerce  destroyer  was 
soon  at  an  end,  for  the  ship  was  burned  when  the  Con 
federates  evacuated  Norfolk  a  few  weeks  later.  Addi 
tional  monitors  were  built  for  the  Northern  navy  and 
proved  their  usefulness. 

Gunboats  on  Western  Rivers.  —  Other  important  ser 
vices  rendered  by  the  navy  included  the  destruction  of 
Fort  Henry  on  the  Tennessee  by  Commodore  Foote ;  the 
capture  of  New  Orleans  by  Admiral  Farragut ;  the  cooper 
ation  of  Admiral  Farragut  and  Admiral  Porter  in  the  open 
ing  of  the  Mississippi  River ;  and  the  seizure  of  several  forts 
and  posts  along  the  coast. 


VI.  THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF  1863 

New  Disasters  in  the  East.  Chancellor  sville.  —  After 
the  Proclamation  of  Emancipation,  the  war  in  the  East 
and  the  West  entered  upon  new  and  important  phases. 
In  the  East,  the  Union  armies  were  still  unfortunate.  In 
May,  1863,  General  Hooker  was  attacked  at  Chancellors- 
ville  and  badly  beaten  by  General  Lee.  The  only  bitter- 
ness  in  the  Confederate  cup  of  joy  was  the  loss  of  Stonewall 
Jackson,  who  was  wounded  in  the  battle  and  died  shortly 
afterward.  The  North  was  sick  at  heart  when,  in  spite  of 
the  strict  military  censorship,  the  news  of  the  defeat  slowly 
filtered  through.  Lincoln  was  on  the  verge  of  despair. 

Lee  Invades  the  North.  -  -  Then  came  the  great  ter 
ror —  invasion.  After  the  victory  at  Chancellorsville, 
the  Confederate  government,  with  high  confidence,  de- 


414         THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

termined  to  win  the  war  by  a  bold  stroke.  It  sent  Lee, 
at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army  of  disciplined  men, 
down  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  across  the  Potomac,  into 
Pennsylvania.  Jefferson  Davis  had  threatened  to  carry 
the  war  into  the  very  heart  of  the  North ;  now  he  was  ful 
filling  his  threat.  By  the  end  of  June,  Lee's  advance  guard 
was  only  four  miles  from  Harrisburg,  the  capital  of  Penn- 


GENERAL  LEE  ON  His  FAMOUS  HORSE,  TRAVELER 

sylvania,  well  within  the  rear  of  Baltimore  and  Wash 
ington.  In  Philadelphia  business  was  paralyzed  and  hur 
ried  preparations  were  made  for  the  defense  of  the  city. 
All  the  North  trembled  with  anxiety.  Lincoln,  beset  by 
urgent  appeals  from  every  section,  relieved  General  Hooker, 
who  had  lost  Chancellorsville,  and  placed  in  command  Gen 
eral  Meade,  who  had  served  with  courage  and  distinction  in 
Potomac  campaigns. 

Gettysburg,  July  1-3, 1863.  —  On  July  I,  the  opposing  armies 
stood  face  to  face  at  the  little  village  of  Gettysburg,  Lee  with 
70,000  men  and  Meade  with  90,000.  For  three  long  days 
they  fought.  On  the  first  and  second  days  the  balance 
seemed  to  incline  to  the  Southern  side. 


THE  CIVIL  WAR  415 

Picket? s  Famous  Charge.  —  Convinced  that  victory  was 
within  his  grasp,  Lee,  on  the  afternoon  of  the  third  day, 
ordered  a  grand  advance.  Under  a  blue  sky,  with  a 
July  sun  beating  down  upon  them  in  full  splendor, 
Pickett's  troops,  fifteen  thousand  strong,  chosen  for  the 
work,  rose  majestically  over  the  crest  behind  which  they 
"were  posted,  descended  the  slopes,  and  in  clear  view  of 
the  enemy  swung  to  the  attack  across  the  valley.  Far  in 
front  on  Cemetery  Ridge  the  Union  soldiers  lay  quietly 
awaiting  the  coming  storm,  while  the  cannon  behind  poured 
a  sweeping  hail  of  shell  and  canister  into  Pickett's  men, 
cutting  them  down  like  grain  before  a  sickle.  On  they 
came.  In  a  little  while  sheets  of  flame  leaped  from  Union 
rifles,  adding  to  the  havoc  wrought  by  the  artillery.  Still 
they  came,  closing  up  their  thinning  ranks,  until  with  one 
mighty  rush  the  men  in  front  were  flung  high  upon  the 
Union  ramparts,  as  the  spray,  is  dashed  upon  a  rockbound 
coast  when  a  wave  breaks.  For  a  brief  instant  the  Stars 
and  Bars  were  planted  in  the  heart  of  the  enemy  by  Pickett's 
men,  but  they  could  not  hold.  Assaulted  on  every  side, 
they  broke,  and  the  shattered  remnants  of  the  proud  com 
mand  were  driven  back  upon  their  old  lines. 

The  Victory.  —  The  day  was  done.  Nearly  forty  thousand 
men  lay  dead  or  wounded.  The  "  high  tide"  of  the  war  "  had 
touched  the  Northern  fields  and  set  out  to  sea  never  to  return. 
Nothing  was  left  for  Lee  but  retreat,  and  had  Meade  been 
able  to  seize  the  opportunity  to  press  the  Southern  forces  to 
the  utmost,  he  might  have  ended  the  war.  But  his  own 
army  was  worn  out  and  he  delayed.  Lincoln  was  sorely  dis 
appointed,  and  yet  he  was  grateful  to  Meade  for  the  work 
he  had  done.  The  North  now  turned  again  to  the  un 
finished  task,  taking  from  the  honored  dead  who  fell  at 
Gettysburg,  "  increased  devotion  to  that  cause  for  which 
they  gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devotion/ 


41 6        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

Vicksburg  Surrendered.  The  Mississippi  Open  to  the 
Sea.  --While  the  North  was  rejoicing  over  the  glorious 
victory  at  Gettysburg,  the  news  of  another  Union  triumph, 
the  fall  of  Vicksburg  on  the  Mississippi,  was  announced. 
On  July  4  —  "the  best  Fourth  since  1776,"  as  General 


LIFE  IN  CELLARS  AND  CAVES  DURING  THE  SIEGE  OF  VICKSBURG 

Sherman  wrote  —  the  Confederate  commander  at  that  post, 
General  Pemberton,  was  forced  to  surrender  to  General 
Grant,  after  a  memorable  siege. 

The  suffering  in  the  beleaguered  city  had  been  horrible 
beyond  measure.  For  weeks  the  inhabitants  had  lived  in 
cellars  and  caves.  Their  food  supply  had  steadily  dimin 
ished  until  they  were  driven  to  the  necessity  of  eating  the 
flesh  of  horses  and  mules.  Day  and  night  were  hideous 
with  the  thunder  of  artillery  and  the  noise  of  bursting 
shells  and  exploding  mines.  The  "  brazen  glories  of  war" 
were  submerged  in  misery,  starvation,  filth,  and  loathsome 


THE  CIVIL  WAR 


horror.  The  Confederate  general  was  simply  forced  to 
surrender  by  the  distress  of  the  soldiers  and  the  people. 

A  few  days  after  the 
surrender  of  Vicksburg, 
Port  Hudson,  below 
Vicksburg,  was  yielded 
to  the  Union  forces, 
and  the  Confederacy, 
thanks  to  the  coopera 
tion  of  the  federal  army 
and  gun  boats,  was  cut 
in  twain.  On  July  16 
a  steamer  from  St. 
Louis  landed  a  cargo 
at  New  Orleans,  and 
as  Lincoln  phrased  it, 
"  the  Father  of  Waters 
again  goes  unvexed  to 
the  sea." 

Chickamauga  and 
Chattanooga.  After 

Gettysburg   and  Vicks 
burg    the    federal    gov-     FARRAGUT  COMMANDING  FROM  THE  RIGGING 
ernment  urged  General        OF  Hls  FLAGSHIP,  Hartford,  AT  THE  OPEN- 

-P.  .  .  ING   OF   THE    MISSISSIPPI 

Rosecrans    to    begin    a 

drive  on  the  Confederates  in  Tennessee.  He  started 
out  with  great  promise.  Then,  on  September  19,  1863, 
he  was  attacked  by  strong  Southern  forces  under  Gen 
eral  Bragg,  and  the  following  day  "  the  great  battle  of 
the  West,"  the  terrible  and  bloody  Chickamauga,  was 
fought.  Rosecians  was  defeated  and  his  own  wing  driven 
back  to  Chattanooga  in  a  rout.  Nothing  but  the  des 
perate  courage  of  General  Thomas  and  his  men  on 
another  wing  prevented  a  complete  disaster  to  the  Union 

2E 


41 8        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

1 
arms.     General  Grant  was  then  placed  in  complete  charge 

in  that  section. 

In  a  few  weeks  followed  battles  at  Lookout  Mountain  — 
"above  the  clouds,"  —and  Missionary  Ridge,  near  Chatta 
nooga,  which  resulted  in  driving  the  Confederate  forces  out 
of  Tennessee  into  northern  Georgia.  By  the  end  of  1863  the 
battle  line  had  been  forced  down  into  Mississippi,  Alabama, 
and  Georgia. 


GENERAL  GRANT  AND  1  1  is  OFFICERS.     GRANT  IN   THE   FOREGROUND  EXAMIN 
ING  A  MAP  OVER  GENERAL  MEADE'S  SHOULDER 

VII.   THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF  1864  AND  1865;  THE  END  OF 

THE  WAR 

Grant  Placed  in  Command  of  All  Union  Armies  (1864).  - 
Only  two  important  Confederate  armies  remained,  one  un 
der  General  Lee  defending  Richmond,  and  the  other  in  the 


THE   CIVIL  WAR 


419 


northern  part  of  Georgia  under  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston. 
Early  in  the  spring  of  the  following  year  (1864),  General 
Grant  was  called  from  the  West,  and  made  Lieutenant- 
general  of  all  the  armies  of  the  United  States,  with  orders 
to  capture  Richmond,  the  capital  of  the  Confederacy,  and 
destroy  Lee's  army  of  Virginia.  In  the  West,  General 
Sherman  was  instructed  to  attack  General  Johnston  and 
drive  his  way  through  Georgia. 


0       25      50  100  150 


SHERMAN'S  MARCH  TO  THE  SEA 

Sherman's  Campaign.  Atlanta  and  the  March  to  the  Sea. 
-  Starting  from  Chattanooga,  General  Sherman  set  out 
on  his  famous  expedition.  The  Confederate  general  slowly 
retired,  with  a  view  to  wearing  Sherman's'  army  out  and 
attacking  it  later  when  the  odds  against  him  were 
not  so  great.  President  Davis,  annoyed  at  Johnston  for  his 
delays,  removed  him,  and  placed  General  Hood  in  charge, 
with  orders  to  attack  Sherman.  This  was  a  fataj  error,  for 
Sherman  beat  off  General  Hood's  heroic  assaults  at  Atlanta, 


420        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

and  with  a  large  division  of  his  army  started  on  the  famous 
march  "  from  Atlanta  to  the  sea/'  destroying  bridges  and 
railroads  and  property  along  a  belt  sixty  miles  wide.  On 
Christmas  Eve,  1864,  President  Lincoln,  with  great  delight, 
received  a  telegram  from  General  Sherman  presenting  him 
as  a  "  Christmas  gift  the  City  of  Savannah  with  one  hun 
dred  fifty  heavy  guns  and  plenty  of  ammunition  ;  also  about 
25,000  bales  of  cotton."  Some  of  the  Union  soldiers,  on 
the  march  to  the  sea,  needlessly  pillaged  residences  and 
wrecked  public  and  private  buildings,  creating  a  very  bitter 
feeling  in  the  hearts  of  the  Southern  people. 

Grant  in  Virginia.  The  Wilderness  and  Cold  Harbor.  — 
Meanwhile  General  Grant  had  been  doggedly  wrestling 
with  the  task  assigned  to  him.  Although  Lee's  Army  of 
Virginia  was  only  about  half  the  size  of  his  own  forces, 
General  Grant  had  no  easy  problem  before  him.  He  was 
fighting  in  the  enemy's  country ;  Lee's  troops  were  familiar 
with  every  highway  and  byway,  and  were  strongly  in 
trenched  at  important  points. 

Realizing  the  gravity  of  the  situation,  Grant,  in  May, 
1864,  crossed  the  Rapidan  River  and  began  to  make  his  way 
through  forests  thickset  with  underbrush.  Here  he  was 
severely  attacked  by  the  Southern  army,  and  for  four  days 
the  terrible  battle  of  "  the  Wilderness  "  raged.  The 
Union  losses  were  frightful,  but  Grant  managed  to  with 
draw  his  forces.  By  a  skillful  march  to  the  left,  he  pushed 
on  to  Spottsylvania  Court  House,  and  then  down  to  Cold 
Harbor  which  was  a  part  of  the  defenses  of  the  City  of 
Richmond.  Here  the  desperate  fighting  went  on  without 
any  marked  gains  for  the  Northern  army.  In  the  month's 
struggle  from  the  Wilderness  to  Cold  Harbor,  Lee  lost 
19,000  men  and  Grant  nearly  three  times  as  many. 

General  Grant  believed  that  victory  would  come  with  the 
wearing  down  of  the  Southern  army.  He  had  twice  as 


THE   CIVIL  WAR  421 

many  men  as  the  Confederates,  he  had  unlimited  supplies 
behind  him,  and  he  knew  that  he  could  win  in  time,  even 
if  at  a  great  cost.  General  Lee's  losses  were  evidently  heavy  ; 
and  he  could  ill  afford  them,  because  the  Confederacy  behind 
him  was  exhausted  and  could  not  furnish  more  troops.  The 
blockade  was  growing  tighter  every  day.  The  end  seemed  to 
be  only  a  matter  of  time. 

Early's  Raid  Checked  by  Sheridan.  --  Remembering 
that  he  had  beaten  off  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  two  years 
before  by  threatening  Washington,  Lee  ordered  General 
Early  with  a  large  force  to  march  rapidly  through  the 
Shenandoah  Valley  and  to  attack  the  capital.  General 
Grant,  fortunately,  had  troops  to  spare.  Instead  of 
giving  up  his  attack  on  Lee's  main  army,  he  sent  a  division 
under  General  Sheridan  to  cope  with  Early.  Sheridan  de 
feated  Early  at  the  battle  of  Winchester,  and  swooped  down 
the  valley,  destroying  everything  in  front  of  him  until,  as 
it  was  said  at  the  time,  a  crow  passing  over  the  region  had 
to  carry  his  rations  with  him. 

The  news  of  General  Early's  defeat  at  Winchester  on 
October  18,  1864,  was  received  with  great  satisfaction  by 
General  Grant,  for  he  knew  now  that  the  Confederacy  had 
struck  its  last  dangerous  blow.  With  General  Sherman 
in  possession  of  Savannah  and  all  of  the  Southwest  cut 
off  by  him,  no  supplies  could  reach  Lee  from  that 
quarter;  it  was  inevitable  that  the  Army  of  Virginia  must 
soon  surrender.  Being  in  a  desperate  plight,  the  leaders  of 
the  Confederacy  tried  to  make  terms  with  President  Lincoln. 
In  November,  1864,  Vice  President  Stephens  met  President 
Lincoln  and  Seward,  the  Secretary  of  State,  on  board  a  war 
ship  in  Hampton  Roads  to  discuss  terms  of  peace.  Lincoln 
called  for  the  disbanding  of  the  Southern  armies,  the 
submission  of  the  seceded  States  to  the  Union,  and  the 
abolition  of  slavery.  Rather  than  make  these  concessions, 


422        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

the  Confederate  government  decided  to  go  on  with  the 
war. 

Lee  Surrenders  at  Appomattox  (April  9,  1865). --The 
North  then  prepared  for  the  final  blow,  and  General  Grant 
began  to  close  in  on  the  Southern  troops  around  Richmond. 
On  April  3,  1865,  Lee,  having  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
he  could  no  longer  safely  defend  the  capital  of  the  Con 
federacy,  withdrew  in  a  southwesterly  direction.  On  April 
9,  General  Grant  overtook  him  at  Appomattox  Court  House 
and  compelled  him  to  surrender  unconditionally.  In  his 
hour  of  triumph,  Grant  was  generous  to  the  vanquished. 
He  did  not  require  Lee  to  surrender  his  sword,  and  he  per 
mitted  the  officers  and  men  to  keep  their  horses,  because, 
as  he  said,  they  would  need  them  in  their  farm  work.  After 
the  Confederate  officers  and  men  had  given  their  Word 
not  to  take  up  arms  against  the  United  States  again,  they 
were  given  a  goodly  supply  of  rations  and  allowed  to  go 
home.  A  few  days  later,  the  other  important  Southern 
army  under  General  Johnston  surrendered  to  General  Sher 
man  in  North  Carolina.  The  war  was  over. 

The  Assassination  of  Lincoln  (April  14,  1865).  —  It  may 
well  be  imagined  with  what  joy  the  news  of  Lee's  surrender 
was  received  throughout  the  United  States.  The  long  war 
was  at  an  end  ;  the  country,  torn  by  hatred  and  distracted  by 
sorrow  for  so  many  weary  years,  could  be  at  peace.  The 
Union  was  preserved.  Instead  of  two  nations  side  by 
side,  armed  to  the  teeth  and  enemies  at  heart,  there  was 
one  government.  With  thanksgiving,  the  great  President 
turned  to  the  task  of  reuniting  the  broken  and  embittered 
peoples ;  but  fate  had  decreed  that  the  work  of  restoration 
should  be  left  to  other  hands.  On  the  evening  of  April  14, 
1865,  Lincoln,  while  sitting  in  his  box  at  the  Ford  Theatre 
in  Washington,  was  shot  by  John  Wilkes  Booth,  an 
actor,  who  was  half-crazed  by  the  defeat  of  the  South.  The 


THE   CIVIL  WAR 


423 


President,  mortally  wounded,  was  carried  across  the  street 
to  a  private  house,  where,  amid  his  sorrowing  family  and 
official  friends,  he  died  in  the  early  hours  of  the  next 
morning. 

Like  wildfire  the  news  of  the  tragedy  spread  across  the 
continent,  and  the  greatest  sorrow  of  the  war  fell  like  a 
pall  over  the  land.  It  seemed  too  much  to  bear.  Thou 
sands  of  brave  men  and  women  had  sacrificed  and  suf 
fered  in  the  dragging  days  and  years  of  the  war,  and 


FORD'S  THEATER,  WHERE  LINCOLN  WAS  SHOT  ON  APRIL  14,  1865 

now,  in  the  hour  when  peace  had  come,  the  brave  Cap 
tain,  as  the  poet  Whitman  wrote,  had  "  fallen  cold  and 
dead."  The  North  had  lost  its  trusted  leader,  and  the 
South  a  friend  who  bore  no  malice  or  bitterness  in  his 
heart. 

VIII.   THE  COST  OF  THE  WAR;  WOMEN  AND  THE  WAR 

Money  and  Property.  --  Just  what  the  war  cost  in  men  and 
money  cannot  be  reckoned  exactly.     The  national  debt  in 


.  424        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

the  summer  of  1865  was  nearly  three  billion  dollars,  most  of 
which  had  been  incurred  for  war  purposes.  To  this  must 
be  added  the  expenditures  of  the  national  government  out 
of  national  taxes,  the  money  spent  by  Northern  states, 
cities,  and  towns,  the  interest  on  the  debt,  and  pensions. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  the  war  expenditures  of  the 
government  for  all  these  purposes,  between  July  i,  1861, 
and  June  30,  1879,  amounted  to  more  than  six  billion  dol 
lars.  In  addition  we  must  include  the  millions  that  have 
been  paid  and  are  still  being  paid  in  pensions. 

The  debt  of  the  Confederate  government,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  repudiated  and  never  paid.  Enormous  expendi 
tures  amounting  to  hundreds  of  millions  were  made,  and 
property  of  still  greater  value  was  destroyed  by  invading 
armies.  It  would  be  a  safe  guess  that  the  total  cost  of  the 
Civil  War  in  money  spent,  property  destroyed,  and  wages  of 
men  lost,  was  well  over  twenty-five  billion  dollars,  a  sum 
equal  to  more  than  fifty  times  the  value  of  all  the  property 
in  the  United  States  when  Washington  was  inaugurated 
President. 

Human  Life.  --  In  human  life  the  cost  of  the  war  is  still 
more  difficult  to  estimate.  During  the  conflict,  about 
2,000,000  men  joined  the  Northern  armies  for  varying  serv 
ices —  three  months,  six  months,  a  year  or  more.  The 
I  number  in  actual  service  reached  its  highest  point  in  April, 
ji865,  when  it  stood  at  slightly  more  than  one  million.  Of 
this  great  host  more  than  360,000  lost  their  lives — -110,000 
perished  on  the  battlefield,  and  about  250,000  died  of 
wounds  and  diseases.  The  records  of  the  Confederate 
armies  were  not  well  kept.  It  is  impossible  to  state  even 
with  fair  accuracy  their  losses,  but  if  they  were  equal  to 
those  of  the  Northern  armies  the  Civil  War  cost  outright 
in  human  life  700,000  men.  This  leaves  out  of  account 
the  crippled  and  permanently  disabled,  and  those  whose 


THE   CIVIL  WAR  425 

lives  were  shortened  many  years  by  the  hardships  of  the 
camp  and  battle  field. 

Women  and  the  War.  —  In  recording  the  heroic  deeds 
and  splendid  sacrifices  of  men  on  the  field  of  battle,  the 
services  of  the  women  of  America  in  the  conduct  of  the 
war  must  not  be  forgotten.  All  through  the  farming  re 
gions  of  the  Northwest  and  to  some  extent  in  other  sec 
tions,  women  took  up  the  lines  and  plow  handles  where 
the  men  dropped  them  and  for  four  years  assumed  responsi 
bility  for  producing  the  crops. 

A  few  days  after  Sumter  was  fired  upon,  the  leading  women 
of  New  York  met  at  Cooper  Union,  under  the  inspiration  of 
Miss  Louisa  Lee  Schuyler,  and  organized  a  relief  associa 
tion.  This  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  marvelous  United 
States  Sanitary  Commission,  which  collected  food  and  sup 
plies  for  the  soldiers,  looked  after  the  health  of  camps,  and 
aided  in  the  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded.  Through  sani 
tary  fairs  held  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  women 
raised  nearly  $3,000,000  for  relief. 

Speaking  of  their  work,  Lincoln  said  : 

I  have  never  studied  the  art  of  paying  compliments  to  women ; 
but  I  must  say,  that  if  all  that  has  been  said  by  orators  and  poets 
since  the  creation  of  the  world  were  applied  to  the  women  of 
America,  it  would  not  do  them  justice  for  their  conduct  during  this 
war. 

Thousands  of  women  went  to  the  front  as  nurses,  endur 
ing  the  horrors  and  hardships  of  camp  life  and  battle  field. 
Volumes  could  be  written  of  their  valorous  deeds  —  gather 
ing  the  wounded  amid  the  storm  of  battle,  serving  at 
plague-stricken  posts.  They  were  among  the  staffs  of  scouts 
and  spies,  in  prisons,  on  the  transport  ships,  wherever  suffer 
ing  and  human  needs  were  to  be  found.  Back  of  the  battle 
lines,  women  knitted,  scraped  lint,  rolled  bandages,  and 


426 


THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


prepared  comforts  and  necessities  for  the  soldiers.  In 
nearly  every  community  there  were  soldiers'  aid  societies 
which  held  weekly  and  even  daily  meetings  to  raise  money, 

supplies,   and  comforts   for 
the  men  at  the  front. 

In  the  South,  burdens 
borne  by  the  women  were 
even  heavier.  There  a 
larger  proportion  of  the 
white  men  were  in  the  field 
and  the  responsibilities  of 
the  women  were  all  the 
greater.  They  experienced 
the  horrors  of  war  all  about 
them :  fields  laid  waste, 
homes  burned,  supplies  de- 


.     ' '.        '  ' 


AN  ARMY  NURSE   OF  1861 

stroyed,  hostile  soldiers  on 

every  hand,  starvation  and  misery  daily,  hourly  staring 
them  in  the  face ;  and  yet  they  failed  not.  Southern 
writings  are  justly  filled  with  tributes  to  the  women  for 
their  bravery  and  their  work. 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.    What  is  meant  by  a  "civil"  war?      Look  up  the  mean 
ing  of  "secession."     At  what  earlier  periods  in  the  country's  his 
tory  had  certain  of  the  states  threatened  to  "secede"  ?     2.    Why 
were  some  of  the  influential  men  of  the  North  opposed  to  the  use 
of  force  in   bringing  the   seceded  states  back  into    the   Union  ? 

3.  Can    you    think    of    any   reasons    why   President   Buchanan 
should  have  decided  to  take  no  strong  measures  to  prevent  the 
secession  of  South  Carolina  ?     (Remember  that  South  Carolina 
seceded  in  December,  1860,  while  Buchanan  was  still  president.) 

4.  In   what   important   ways    did    the    Confederate    States    of 
America  differ  from  the  original  union  formed  in  1789  ? 

II.  i.    Compare  the  relative  advantages  and  disadvantages  of 


THE  CIVIL  WAR  427 

the  North  and  the  South  in  1861  in  carrying  on   a  successful  war. 

2.  What  and  where  were  the  "Border  States"?     Why  did   the 
North  make  an  especially  determined  effort  to  keep  these  in  the 
Union  ?     With  what  results  ?     (Study  carefully  on  a  map  the  loca 
tion  of  these  Border  States;    note  how  they  formed  a  "buffer" 
between  the  free  states  and  the  seceded  states.)      Why  should  the 
North  have  been  particularly  anxious  lest  Maryland  should  go  with 
the  South  ?     What  especial  disadvantage  would  the  North  have 
suffered  if  Missouri  had  seceded  ? 

III.  I.    Locate  Manassas  Junction  in  Virginia  (near  here  the 
Battle  of  Bull  Run  was  fought).     Note  the  direction  of  the  rail 
roads   that   joined   at    Manassas.     Why  should    the  Confederate 
army   have  chosen   this  as  the  point   at  which  to  make  a  stand 
against    Northern    invasion  ?     2.    McClellan   was    severely    criti 
cized   in   the   North    for   delaying    so    long  in    moving  his    army 
toward    Richmond.     Why    were    the    Northerners    especially    ir 
ritated    at    this    delay  ?     Can    you    think    of    any    reasons    that 
may    have    caused    McClellan    to    delay    in    spite    of  criticism  ? 

3.  What  was   Lee's   object  in   attempting  to  invade  the   North 
in   1862?     What  was   the    result  of  this   attempt?     4.    From    a 
study  of   the    map,  tell  why  the    capture    of   Forts    Henry   and 
Donelson    was    so    important  to  the  Union  cause.     What  would 
be  the  advantage  to  the  Union  army  of  controlling  the  Tennessee 
and  Cumberland  rivers  ?     5.    Why  was  the  contest  for  Missouri 
and  Arkansas  important  ?     6.    Why  was  New  Orleans  an  espe 
cially  important  city  for  the  Union  forces  to  occupy  ? 

IV.  i.    What    were    Lincoln's    objects    in    emancipating    the 
slaves   held   in   the  seceded   states  ?     2.    Why  was    this    not    the 
same  as  the  "abolition"  of  slavery  ?     3.    What  were  some  of  the 
great  difficulties  that  Lincoln  had  to  meet  in  guiding  the  Nation 
through  the  war  ? 

V.  i.    What  was   the  object  of  the  Union   in   blockading  the 
Southern  ports  ?     From  a  study  of  the  coastline  of  the  Southern 
States  point  out  the  difficulties  that  lay  in  the  way  of  this  policy, 
and  also  the  conditions  that  favored  the  Union  navy  in  carrying 
out    the    plan    successfully.     2.    What  was   the    purpose    of   the 
Confederacy  in  fitting  out    ships  like  the  Alabama!     3.    Locate 
Hampton    Roads.     Why   was    it    particularly   important:    to    the 
North  to  control  the  entrance  to  Chesapeake  Bay  ?     Why  was 
the  battle  between  the  Merrimac  and  the  Monitor  important? 


428         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

VI.  I.    What  was  Lee's  object  in  his  second  invasion  of  the 
North  (1863)  ?     His  most  advanced  outposts  reached  the  banks 
of  the  Susquehanna  opposite    Harrisburg,   Pennsylvania;    locate 
on  the  map.     2.    Who  was  appointed  to  check    Lee's  invasion  ? 
Locate  Gettysburg  on  the  map.     Why  is  Gettysburg  called  the 
"high-water  mark  of  the  Confederacy"  ?     Why  is  the   Battle  of 
Gettysburg  listed  among  the  "decisive"  battles  of  the  world's  his 
tory  ?     3.    Locate  Vicksburg  and  tell  why  its  capture  was  so  im 
portant  to  the  Union  cause. 

VII.  I.    Describe  Grant's  plan  of  campaign  for  1864.     What 
were  the   important    differences    between    Grant's    methods    and 
those     of    his    predecessors    in    charge    of    the    Union    armies  ? 
2.    Trace  on  the  map  (p.   398)  the  course  of  Grant's  movements 
against   Lee   in   Virginia.     Note   the   general    direction   of  these 
movements    and    the    points   where    the    successive    battles    (the 
Wilderness,  Spottsylvania  Court  House,  and  Cold  Harbor)  were 
fought.     Why  has  Grant's  campaign  been  called  a  "great  flanking 
movement"?     3.    What  did  Lee  hope  to  accomplish   by  Early's 
raid  ?     Why  did  his  plans  fail  ?     4.    Locate  the  point  where  Lee 
surrendered.     In  view  of  the  fact   that   Richmond   had   already 
fallen   into   the   hands   of  the  Unionists,  where,  in  your  opinion, 
was  Lee  trying  to  go  when  he  was  forced  to  surrender  ? 

VIII.  I.    Name  the  important  results  of  the  war.     Comparing 
the  results  with  the  cost  of  the  war  in  money,  in  human  life,  and  in 
the  suffering  caused,  would  you  say  that  the  good  accomplished 
was  worth  the  sacrifice  ?     Give  reasons  for  your  answer.      2.    De 
scribe  the  services  rendered  by  women  during  the  war. 


PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

I.    Select  one  of  the  following  topics  for  study  and  report : 

The  Battle  of  Bull  Run:  See  Hart's  "Romance  of  the  Civil 
War,"  pp.  287-291  ;  Nicolay's  "Abraham  Lincoln,"  pp.  225- 
230. 

The  Merrimac  and  the  Monitor:  See  Hart's  "Romance  of  the 
Civil  War,"  pp.  357-358;  Roosevelt  and  Lodge's  "Hero  Tales 
from  American  History,"  pp.  185-195. 

The  Gettysburg  Campaign:  See  Elson's  "Side-Lights  on 
American  History,"  vol.  ii,  ch.  v;  Hart's  "Source  Book,"  pp. 
323-327;  Roosevelt  and  Lodge's  "Hero  Tales  from  American 


THE  CIVIL  WAR  429 

History,"  pp.  227-236;    Nicolay's  "Abraham  Lincoln,"  pp.  372^ 
378. 

Lee's  Surrender  at  Appomattox:  See  Hart's  "Source  Book," 
pp.  329-333;  Oilman's  "Robert  E.  Lee,"  ch.  xix;  Coombs's 
"Ulysses  S.  Grant,"  ch.  xix;  Nicolay's  "Abraham  Lincoln,"  pp. 

509-5I5- 

2.  Select  one  or  more  of  the  following  leaders  of  the  Civil  War 
period  for  study  and  repor-t : 

Ulysses  S.  Grant:  See  Southworth's  "Builders  of  Our  Coun 
try,"  Book  II,  pp.  217-228;  Hart's  "Romance  of  the  Civil  War," 
pp.  179-183  (account  of  Grant  as  a  cadet  at  West  Point) ;  Roose 
velt  and  Lodge's  "Hero  Tales  from  American  History,"  pp.  239- 
248  (account  of  the  Vicksburg  campaign) ;  Nicolay's  "Abraham 
Lincoln,"  pp.  264-269  (Grant  at  Fort  Donelson) ;  Coombs's 
"  Ulysses  S.  Grant." 

Robert  E.  Lee:  See  Southworth's  "Builders  of  Our  Country," 
Book  II,  pp.  229-237;  Gilman's  "Robert  E.  Lee." 

"Stonewall"  Jackson:  See  Hart's  "Romance  of  the  Civil 
War,"  pp.  266-269;  Roosevelt  and  Lodge's  "Hero  Tales  from 
American  History,"  pp.  213-223. 

David  G.  Farragut :  See  Southworth's  "Builders  of  Our  Coun 
try,"  Book  II,  pp.  238-248;  Roosevelt  and  Lodge's  "Hero  Tales 
from  American  History,"  pp.  303-322;  Hart's  "Source  Book," 
pp.  313-315;  Hart's  "Romance  of  the  Civil  War,"  pp.  362-366. 

3.  Tell  the  story  of  Clara  Barton  as  illustrating  the  services 
rendered  by  women  as  Civil  War  nurses. 

See  Southworth's  "Builders  of  Our  Country,"  Book  II,  pp. 
252-255  ;  Hart's  "Romance  of  the  Civil  War,"  pp.  416-418. 

4.  Give  as  many  reasons  as  you  can  explaining  why  Lincoln 
is  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  great  figures  of  history. 

See  Nicolay's  "Abraham  Lincoln,"  ch.  xxviii ;  Roosevelt  and 
Lodge's  "Hero  Tales  from  American  History,"  pp.  324-335; 
Hart's  "Source  Book,"  pp.  333-335;  Southworth's  "Builders 
of  Our  Country,"  Book  II,  pp.  206-216;  Elson's  "Side-Lights 
on  American  History,"  vol.  ii,  pp.  181-182. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
RECONSTRUCTION  IN  THE  SOUTH 

I.    PROBLEMS  OF  RECONSTRUCTION 

The  Freedmen.  -  -  Though  bowed  by  the  sorrows  of  the 
Lincoln  tragedy,  the  people  of  the  North  rejoiced  that  at 
last  the  specter  of  slavery  had  been  laid.  They  turned  to 
their  accustomed  work  in  fields  and  factories  as  if  every 
thing  was  settled.  The  more  thoughtful  in  both  sections, 
however,  knew  that  it  was  one  thing  to  break  the  chains  of 
the  slaves  and  a  far  more  perplexing  thing  to  find  for  them 
a  proper  place  among  citizens  of  the  country. 

Millions  of  farm  "  hands  "  who  had  been  bought  and  sold 
and  who  had  been  absolutely  at  the  beck  and  call  of  their 
masters,  were  now  freemen,  at  liberty  to  go  where  they 
pleased.  This  was  a  strange  condition  of  affairs.  It  had 
come  suddenly,  —  without  warning  or  preparation.  There 
they  stood,  poor  people,  with  empty  hands  and  untrained 
minds,  helpless  in  a  world  which  they  did  not  understand, 
at  a  loss  which  way  to  turn.  The  federal  government  hav 
ing  abolished  slavery,  could  not  ignore  the  fate  of  the  freed- 
man. 

The  Conquered  States.  —  That  was  not  all.  What  was  to  be 
done  with  the  former  Confederate  states,  and  with  the  leaders 
of  the  Confederacy  ?  Should  those  who  had  just  been  in  arms 
against  the  authority  of  the  nation  be  restored  at  once  to 
their  old  powers  and  rights  as  citizens  and  voters  ?  On 
these  questions  there  was  great  difference  of  opinion. 

430 


RECONSTRUCTION   IN  THE   SOUTH 


431 


I.  Lincoln  had  taken  a  generous  view.  He  held  that 
the  Confederate  states  had  never  been  out  of  the  Union 
in  fact ;  that  they  had  merely  attempted  to  withdraw  and 
had  failed.  He  thought,  therefore,  that  they  should  resume 
their  proper  places  as  quickly  and  as  peaceably  as  possible. 


•••cTWju       ^^ 

,<.'.    ^jSssv*  ,  ___ 

.^_  *=^ 

THE  SOUTHERN  SOLDIER  AND  His  HOME  AFTER  THE  WAR 

VVhen  the  Northern  armies  began  to  occupy  seceded  states, 
he  proposed  that  just  as  soon  as  one  tenth  of  the  voters  hi 
each  state  would  take  an  oath  of  loyalty  to  the  Union,  they 
should  be  permitted  to  reorganize  the  state  government 
for  themselves.  If  Lincoln  had  lived,  it  might  have  been 
possible  to  settle  the  troublesome  matter  this  way;  but  his 
untimely  death  put  the  work  of  "reconstruction"  into 
other  hands. 

2.    Thaddeus  Stevens,  of  Pennsylvania,  Charles   Sumner, 
of  Massachusetts,  and  other  Republican  leaders  were  deter- 


432        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

mined  that  generosity  should  not  mark  the  policy  of  the 
government  toward  the  Confederate  states.  They  said 
that  the  South  had  brought  on  the  war  and  should  be  pun 
ished  for  wrongdoing.  In  their  view  all  the  details  of  re 
storing  the  Southern  states  were  matters  for  the  federal 
government  to  settle.  The  abolition  of  slavery  throughout 
the  country  in  1865  by  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  was,  in  their  opinion,  proof  that  the  rela 
tion  of  freedmen  to  their  former  masters  was  subject  to  na 
tional,  not  state,  control.  When  Congress  met  in  December, 
1865,  the  Republican  leaders  refused  to  admit  Senators  and 
Representatives  from  the  Southern  states,  and  undertook 
to  solve  the  problems  of  the  South  in  their  own  way. 

The  Fourteenth  Amendment.  —  One  of  their  first  measures 
was  a  law  establishing  a  Freedmen's  Bureau,  a  division 
of  the  federal  government  with  offices  all  through  the  South, 
through  which  aid  was  to  be  distributed  to  the  negroes.  A 
second  important  measu-re  was  another  amendment  to  the 
federal  Constitution — the  Fourteenth — passed  in  1866,  rati 
fied  by  the  states,  and  proclaimed  a  law  two  years  later. 

This  amendment  provided  that  all  persons  born  or  natu 
ralized  in  the  United  States  were  citizens.  All  question  as 
to  whether  the  freedmen  were  bona-fide  American  citizens 
was  thus  removed.  The  amendment  also  declared  in  effect 
that  negroes  should  not  be  deprived  by  the  states  of  their 
civil  rights  in  any  arbitrary  or  irregular  fashion.  It  ex 
cluded  from  Congress  all  men  who  had  taken  an  oath  to 
support  the  Constitution  and  then  aided  in  the  war 
against  the  United  States,  and  it  forbade  the  payment  of 
any  of  the  war  debt  incurred  by  the  Confederate  govern 
ment  or  the  seceded  states. 

Negro  Suffrage.  —  Another  feature  of  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment  was  the  provision  that,  if  any  state  excluded 
any  adult  males  from  the  right  to  vote,  its  representa- 


RECONSTRUCTION  IN  THE   SOUTH  433 

tion  in  Congress  should  be  reduced.  This  was  designed 
indirectly  to  compel  the  granting  of  the  suffrage  to  negro 
men  in  the  South  and  in  those  Northern  states,  like  Ohio, 
which  still  withheld  it.  Clever  Republican  politicians 
favored  this  because  it  meant  a  huge  increase  in  the  vote 
cast  for  their  party.  Other  Republicans  urged  it  on  dif 
ferent  grounds.  Sumner,  for  example,  pointed  out  that  all 
negroes  had  been  given  the  civil  rights  enjoyed  by  the 
whites,  such  as  the  right  to  go  and  come,  and  to  buy  and 
sell.  Then  he  declared  that  the  negroes'  civil  rights  were 
not  "  worth  a  rush  "  without  the  right  to  vote  for  those 
who  made  the  laws  and  enforced  them,  and  that  the  suf 
frage,  therefore,  should  be  conferred  on  the  negro  men.  He 
left  the  women  to  take  care  of  their  civil  rights  as  best  they 
could.  Under  this  amendment  the  federal  government 
sought  to  force  manhood  suffrage,  white  and  black,  on  the 
South. 

So  drastic  an  amendment  would  not  have  secured  the  ap 
proval  of  three  fourths  of  the  states  if  some  of  the  South 
ern  States  had  not  been  forced  to  ratify  it  in  order  to  get 
back  into  the  Union. 

Military  Rule  in  the  South.  —  Congress  then  passed 
more  drastic  "  Reconstruction  acts  "  designed  to  settle  the 
political  problems  of  the  South.  Under  these  acts  all  the 
seceded  states,  except  Tennessee,  were  laid  out  into  mili 
tary  districts,  each  governed  by  a  military  officer  supported 
by  troops.  Under  them  also,  governments  were  established 
in  the  several  Southern  states,  and  the  right  to  vote  was 
given  to  all  men,  white  or  black,  over  twenty-one  years  of 
age  —  except  those  who  had  taken  part  in  the  war  against 
the  Union.  In  other  words,  a  few  white  men  and  the  mass 
of  new  negro  voters  were  authorized  to  set  up  governments 
and  in  the  course  of  time  to  come  back  into  the  Union  as 
regular  states.  By  this  arrangement,  the  states,  one  by  one, 

2F 


434        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

were  restored  to  their  old  position,  until  in  1870  they  were 
all  once  more  within  the  Union. 

The  Impeachment  of  Johnson.  -  -  The  various  Re 
construction  acts  were  violently  opposed  by  President 
Andrew  Johnson,  who,  as  Vice  President,  succeeded  Lin 
coln  in  1865.  Johnson  was  a  native  of  Tennessee.  He  had 
been  opposed  to  slavery,  but  he  had  not  been  in  favor  of 
giving  the  government  of  the  Southern  states  over  to  the 
negroes.  He  vetoed,  therefore,  every  important  measure 
passed  by  Congress  dealing  with  the  Southern  problems, 
and  savagely  attacked  the  members  of  Congress  in  his  pub 
lic  addresses.  The  measures  were  passed  over  his  veto ; 
and  in  February,  1868,  the  House  of  Representatives  re 
solved  to  impeach  him  for  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

In  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  Constitution  the 
trial  took  place  before  the  Senate.  After  two  months  of 
wrangling  the  President  was  acquitted  —  by  the  narrow 
margin  of  one  vote. 

II.   GRANT  AS  PRESIDENT;  THE   RULE  OF  THE   " CARPET 


BAGGERS  " 


Grant  Elected  President.  —  Determined  to  have  a  Presi 
dent  thoroughly  in  accord  with  their  views,  the  Republicans 
nominated  and  elected,  in  1868  and  again  in  1872,  General 
Grant,  whose  great  military  prowess  and  successful  conclu 
sion  of  the  war  had  made  him  a  national  hero. 

The  Fifteenth  Amendment.  -  -  The  Republican  leaders 
soon  found  that  the  Fourteenth  Amendment,  which 
threatened  the  Southern  states  with  the  reduction  of 
their  representation  in  Congress  in  case  negroes  were  de 
prived  of  the  vote,  was  ineffective.  In  spite  of  the  amend 
ment  and  the  Reconstruction  acts,  Southern  white  men  kept 
negroes  away  from  the  polls  whenever  they  could.  The 


RECONSTRUCTION  IN  THE   SOUTH  435 

Republicans  thereupon  decided  to  have  a  law  which  would 
guarantee  the  vote  to  negroes,  and  passed  in  1869  the  Fif 
teenth  Amendment,  which  declared  in  express  terms  that 
the  states  and  government  of  the 
United  States  should  never  deprive 
any  person  of  the  right  to  vote  on 
account  of  "  race,  color,  or  pre 
vious  condition  of  servitude."  It 
was  ratified  by  the  states  and  pro 
claimed  a  law  in  1870. 

The  Disastrous  Rule  of  the 
"  Carpet-baggers."  -  The  action 
of  the  Republicans  in  placing 

Southern  governments  in  the  hands 

.,  .  i         r  i  •  ULYSSES  S.  GRANT 

or   former  slaves   and  a  tew  white 

men,  who  had  not  taken  part  in  the  Confederacy,  did  not 
solve  the  problems  created  by  the  war  and  emancipation. 
Men  who  could  not  read  or  write  and  who  had  never  had  a 
dollar  before  were  elected  to  state  legislatures  to  aid  in  re 
storing  order  to  the  stricken  land.  Many  self-sacrificing 
and  conscientious  people  from  the  North  went  down  to  help 
in  reconstruction.  With  them,  unfortunately,  went  many 
rascals  who  were  bent  upon  making  money  as  fast  as  they 
could,  and  getting  back  North  with  their  loot  as  soon  as 
possible.  These  rascals  were  known  as  "  carpet-baggers  " 
because  they  were  said  to  have  brought  nothing  but  carpet 
bags  (old-fashioned  valises)  with  them.  Negro  leaders  and 
carpet-baggers  voted  away  great  sums  of  money  to  rebuild 
the  railways,  bridges,  and  industries  of  the  states.  They 
also  enriched  themselves  out  of  public  funds,  incurring  mil 
lions  of  dollars  of  new  debts ;  and,  shameful  as  it  is  to 
relate,  many  of  them  stole  large  sums  from  the  public  treas 
uries,  while  bribing  negro  voters  and  legislators  with  petty 
payments.  With  the  land  laid  waste  and  the  state  gov- 


436        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

ernments  weak  and  corrupt,  the  Southern  cup  of  bitterness 
was  full  indeed. 

The  Ku  Klux  Klan.  —  The  white  men,  thus  excluded  from 
a  share  in  their  own  government,  decided  to  take  the  law 
into  their  own  hands.  Some  of  the  more  resolute  formed 


SCENE  IN  NEW  ORLEANS  DURING  THE  RULE  OF  THE  CARPET-BAGGERS 

secret  societies  —  such  as  the  famous  Ku  Klux  Klan  —  for  the 
purpose  of  restraining  the  negroes  and  keeping  them  away 
from  the  polls.  Dressed  in  masks  and  long  white  robes, 
the  clansmen  rode  about  at  night,  warning  carpet-baggers 
and  their  negro  friends  against  interfering  in  matters  of 
government.  Sometimes  they  "  tarred  and  feathered " 


RECONSTRUCTION  IN  THE   SOUTH  437 

or  drove  away  those  whom  they  marked  out  as  their  en 
emies.  The  country  was  aroused  by  reports  of  cruel  deeds, 
and  Congress  passed  more  laws  intended  to  protect  the 
freedmen  in  their  right  to  vote  —  but  in  vain.  It  was  im 
possible  to  stamp  out  the  secret  societies.  They  struck 
such  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  freedmen  that  thou 
sands  of  them  gave  up  all  attempts  to  take  part  in 
elections.  White  rule,  thus  restored  in  the  South  by  violence, 
was  then  sealed  by  laws. 

Laws  Depriving  the  Negro  of  the  Ballot.  --In  the  nineties 
state  after  state  in  the  South  enacted  laws  and  constitu 
tional  amendments  taking  the  ballot  away  from  the  ne 
groes.  Of  course  they  could  not  say  that  negroes  as  such 
should  not  vote.  The  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Amend 
ments  forbade  that.  They  therefore  hit  upon  a  number  of 
clever  devices  to  the  effect  that  no  man  should  vote  unless  : 

(1)  he  had  a  certain  amount  of  property; 

(2)  or  could  read  a  section  of  the  state  constitution  or 
explain  it,  when  read  to  him,  in  such  a  way  as  to  satisfy 
the  election  officers;1 

(3)  or  had  been  a  voter  in  1867  or  was  the  son  or  grandson 
of  a  person  entitled  to  vote  on  or  before  1867  —  the  famous 
"  grandfather  clause  "  (declared  void  by  the  United   States 
Supreme  Court) ; 

(4)  and  had  never  been  guilty  of  any  crime  such  as  wife 
beating,  stealing,  or  obtaining  money  under  false  pretenses. 

It  is  easy  to  see  how  these  schemes  deprived  the  negroes 
of  the  ballot.  Most  of  them  had  no  property  and  therefore 
were  disfranchised  by  the  first  provision  mentioned  above. 
If  a  negro  was  fortunate  enough  to  have  the  required  amount 
of  property,  he  found  it  difficult  to  read  a  section  of  the  state 
constitution  or  to  explain  it  in  a  way  that  satisfied  the  white 

1  Some  Northern  states,  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  for  instance,  have 
similar  "educational"  tests  for  voters. 


438        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

election  officers.  At  the  same  time  these  provisions  did  not 
disfranchise  many  white  men.  The  poorest  or  most  ignorant 
white  man  either  could  show  that  he  or  his  father  or  grand 
father  voted  on  or  before  1867  or  could  explain  some  clause  of 
the  constitution  in  a  way  that  satisfied  his  white  brethren. 
As  a  result  of  all  these  provisions  the  negroes  were  excluded 
from  elections,  especially  in  the  states  of  the  far  South,  and 
the  dominion  of  white  men  was  once  more  restored  and 
made  lawful. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.    How  had  Lincoln  planned  to  ''reconstruct"  the  Southern 
states  ?     Contrast   his   plans  with  those  actually  carried  out  by 
Congress.      2.    Read  the  Thirteenth,  Fourteenth,    and  Fifteenth 
Amendments.      (See  Appendix,  page  647.)     Why  were  the  Four 
teenth  and  Fifteenth  Amendments   needed   after  the  Thirteenth 
had   beer?    adopted  ?      3.    What  were    the   important    differences 
between    President  Johnson's  attitude  toward  reconstruction  and 
that  of  the  leaders  of  his  party  in  Congress  ?     4.    What  is  meant 
by  "impeachment"  ?      Describe  the  method  that  is  followed    in 
impeaching  an  officer  of  the  government   (see  Article  I,  Section 
III,  of  the  Constitution). 

II.  I.    Describe  the   rule  of  the  "carpet-baggers."     In  what 
ways  did  the  Southerners  oppose  this  rule  ?     In  your  opinion  was 
this   kind  of  opposition  justified  ?     2.    Why  were  the  Ku   Klux 
Klans  organized  ?     What  did  they  do  ?     3.    In  what  ways  did  the 
South  succeed  in  keeping  the  negroes  from  voting  ? 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Find  the  important  facts  about  the  life  of  Andrew  Johnson. 
What  were  the  strong  and  weak  points  in  his  character  ?     In  what 
ways  was  his  life  like  Lincoln's  and  Andrew  Jackson's  ?     How 
did  he  differ  from  each  of  these  men  ? 

See    Elson's    "Side-Lights    on    American    History,"    pp.    184- 
189. 

2.  Charles  Sumner  was  a  prominent  Northern  leader  in  Congress 


OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW 


441 


C.  Military  rule  in  the  South  and  its  consequences. 

D.  The  struggle  between  President  Johnson  and  Congress : 

the  impeachment,  trial,  and  acquittal  of  Johnson. 

E.  The  campaign  of  1869  :   Grant  elected. 

F.  The  Fifteenth  Amendment. 

G.  The  rule  of  the  "carpet-baggers"  :  the  Ku  Klux  Klan. 
H.    Laws  depriving  the  negro  of  the  vote. 

Important  names  : 

Presidents:  Taylor  and  Fillmore  (1849-1853),  Pierce  (1853-1 857), 
Buchanan  (1857-1861),  Lincoln  (1861-1865),  Lincoln  and  Johnson 
(1865-1869),  Grant  (1869-1877). 

Other  Political  Leaders:  Davis,  Douglas,  Garrison,  Fremont, 
Seward,  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  Greeley. 

Military  and  Naval  Leaders:  Grant,  Lee,  Sherman,  McClellan, 
"Stonewall"  Jackson,  Sheridan,  Johnston,  Farragut,  Meade, 
Hooker,  Thomas,  Early. 

Important  dates  :    1820;    1850;    1854;  April  14,  1861  ;   January  I5 
1863;   July  1-3,  1863;   April  9,  1865. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE  RISE  OF  THE  NEW  SOUTH 

I.   THE  SOUTH  IN  RUINS  AT  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  WAR 

When  the  soldiers  of  the  Northern  armies  returned 
victorious  from  the  fields  of  battle,  they  found  prosperous 
farms  and  busy  factories  awaiting  their  home  coming. 


A  STREET  IN  RICHMOND  AFTER  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  WAR 

When  the  soldiers  of  the  Southern  armies  returned  home, 
they  found  waiting  for  them  such  a  task  as  had  seldom 
confronted  any  people  in  all  the  history  of  the  world.  The 
scene  can  best  be  drawn  in  the  language  of  a  distinguished 
Georgian,  Henry  W.  Grady  : 

Let  me  picture  to  you,  the  foot-sore  Confederate  soldier  as 
.  .  .  he  turned  his  face  southward  from  Appomattox  in  April, 


44,2 


THE   RISE  OF  THE   NEW  SOUTH  443 

1865.  .  .  .  What  does  he  find  .  .  .  when  he  reaches  the  home  he 
left  so  prosperous  and  beautiful  ?  He  finds  his  house  in  ruins,  his 
farm  devastated,  his  slaves  free,  his  stock  killed,  his  barn  empty, 
his  trade  destroyed,  his  money  worthless  ...  his  people  without 
law  or  legal  status,  his  comrades  slain,  and  the  burdens  of  others 
heavy  on  his  shoulders.  Crushed  by  defeat,  his  very  traditions 
gone;  without  money,  credit,  employment,  material  training; 
and  besides  all  this,  confronted  with  the  gravest  problem  that  ever 
met  human  intelligence  —  the  establishing  of  a  status  for  the  vast 
body  of  his  liberated  slaves. 

The  Burdens  of  the  Freedmen.  -  -  The  condition  of  the 
former  slaves  was  pitiable  in  the  extreme.  While  the  great 
war  was  being  waged,  the  slaves  generally  remained  on' their 
masters'  plantations  and  worked  as  faithfully  in  the  fields 
as  of  old.  For  this  devotion  to  their  masters,  Mr.  Grady 
paid  them  this  tribute : 

We  remember  with  what  fidelity  for  four  years  he  guarded 
our  defenseless  women  and  children  whose  husbands  and  fathers 
were  fighting  against  his  freedom.  To  his  credit  be  it  said  that 
whenever  he  struck  a  blow  for  his  own  liberty  he  fought  in  open 
battle,  and  when  at  last  he  raised  his  black  and  humble  hands 
that  the  shackles  might  be  struck  off,  those  hands  were  innocent 
of  wrong  against  his  helpless  charges  and  worthy  to  be  taken  in 
loving  grasp  by  every  man  who  honors  loyalty  and  devotion. 

When  the  war  was  over  and  the  former  slaves  realized 
that  they  were  free,  the  majority  of  them  knew  not  where 
to  turn ;  and  as  ancient  habits  of  life  could  not  be  changed 
by  a  mere  decree  of  law,  they  continued  to  live  in  their  old 
cabins.  Now,  however,  the  cabins  and  lands  belonged  to 
their  masters,  and  they  had  no  right  in  them  except  as 
renters  or  wage  workers.  Of  renting  and  wages  they  knew 
nothing.  Ignorant  of  the  fact  that  freedom  did  not  mean 
idleness,  many  of  them  fondly  imagined  that  they-  were 
to  have  a  life  of  ease.  In  this  they  were  encouraged  by 
agitators,  who  told  them  that  the  government  would  give 


444        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

them  cabins  and  lands,  so  that  they  could  be  their  own 
masters  and  work  or  not  as  they  liked.  The  cruel  joke, 
which  was  widely  circulated,  only  made  matters  worse, 
because  it  disheartened  them  all  the  more  to  be  vainly 
waiting  for  the  "  free  land  "  that  was  never  given  to  them. 

Those  of  a  more  adventurous  turn  of  mind  left  their  old 
plantations  and  flocked  to  the  towns  in  search  of  excite 
ment  or  work.  They  wandered  in  the  highways  and  by 
ways,  nearly  always  begging,  and  often  stealing.  When 
they  went  into  the  towns  they  crowded  of  necessity  into 
the  meanest  quarters,  living  in  wretched  huts  and  shanties 
where  many  died  from  fevers  and  other  diseases. 

Starvation  in  Many  Places.  —  So  great  was  the  distress  in 
many  places  that  the  federal  government  was  forced  to 
open  stores  for  the  free  distribution  of  food  to  the  starving, 
and  the  state  legislatures  voted  money  to  feed  the  po6r.  In 
the  state  of  Georgia,  where  bad  crops  added  to  the  misery 
of  the  people,  13,000  freedmen  and  38,000  whites  were 
given  aid  by  the  government  in  the  single  month  of  Sep 
tember,  1866. 

II.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  FARMING  AND  MANUFACTURING 

The  Reconstruction  of  the  Planting  System.  Breaking 
up  the  Estates.  —  In  the  midst  of  all  these  discouragements^ 
the  people  of  the  South  began  the  work  of  restoration. 
The  first  big  problem  confronting  former  masters  was  how 
to  get  the  land  tilled.  Finding  it  difficult  to  secure  the 
stock  and  tools  and  to  induce  the  negroes  to  work  in  the  old 
way,  they  were  often  forced  to  break  up  their  plantations 
into  small  farms.  In  1860  the  average  holding  of  land  in 
the  South  was  about  335  acres;  by  1900  it  was  less  than 
140  acres. 

The  Development  of  the  "Renter  "  System.  — Two  systems 
of  farming  sprang  up.     One  of  them  was  the  "  cropper  "  or 


THE   RISE  OF  THE  NEW   SOUTH 


445 


"  renter  "  system.  According  to  this  plan  the  plantation 
owner  laid  out  his  estate  in  small  plots  and  rented  each 
plot  to  a  negro  family.  As  the  family  had  no  live  stock, 
tools,  or  seeds,  the  owner  advanced  these  on  the  under 
standing  that  the  renter  would  pay  for  them  when  the  crops 
were  sold.  The  family  had  nothing  to  live  on  until  the 
crop  was  harvested,  and  it  became  necessary  for  the  owner 


THRESHING  RICE  ON  A  SOUTHERN  PLANTATION 

to  advance  money  to  buy  food  and  clothes.  Thus  the 
renter  or  cropper  was  always,  or  nearly  always,  in  debt  to 
the  owner  before  he  began  to  work.  In  return  for  the  use 
of  land  and  tools,  the  land-owner  was  to  receive  a  certain 
portion  of  the  crop  raised  on  the  plot.  As  the  negro  was 
unable  to  read  and  write  and  to  keep  books,  he  could 
not  tell  how  his  accounts  stood.  As  long  as  he  was  in  debt, 
he  and  his  entire  family  had  to  remain  and  till  the  fields  of 
the  owner. 

The  Independent  Negro  Farmer.  —  Notwithstanding  the 
heavy  handicaps,  many  negroes  did  manage  to  accumu 
late  a  few  dollars  and  to  start  farming  on  their  own  land, 
or  at  least  on  land  which  they  held  under  mortgage.  By 
the  year  1900  it  was -estimated  from  the  census  returns  that 
there  were  nearly  two  hundred  thousand  small  farms  in  the 


446        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

South  owned  by  negro  farmers  either  outright  or  under 
mortgage.  At  the  same  time  more  than  half  a  million 
negro  families  were  still  working  farms  as  croppers  or  renters 
on  the  share  plan. 

Wage  Labor  on  the  Plantations  and  Farms.  -  -  The  re 
mainder  of  the  negroes,  who  continued  to  live  in  the  coun 
try,  were  transformed  into  wage  workers  on  the  planta 
tions  and  farms.  Former  owners  or  enterprising  newcomers 
who  bought  up  estates  were  often  able  to  secure  capital 
and  engage  in  farming  on  a  large  scale.  In  such  cases,  the 
owners  of  the  land  hired  negroes  for  daily  wages  to  till 
the  fields.  The  wages,  even  if  all  that  the  owner  could 
afford  to  pay,  were  usually  low,  and  negroes  were  frequently 
in  debt  to  their  employers  on  account  of  advances  made  for 
food  and  clothes.  By  this  system  the  laborer  was  equally 
bound  to  the  soil.  He  could  not  move  away  until  his 
debts  were  paid,  and  often  he  could  not  manage  to  catch 
up  with  his  debts,  especially  if  there  was  sickness  or  acci 
dent  in  his  family. 

The  Revival  of  the  Cotton  Trade.  —  In  spite  of  all  these 
obstacles,  the  farm  produce  of  the  South  soon  increased 
with  great  rapidity.  By  1879  the  output  of  cotton  was 
about  5,000,000  bales,  or  equal  to  the  output  of  1860  —  the 
eve  of  the  Civil  War.  By  1904  the  cotton  crop  reached  the 
startling  figure  of  13,700,000  bales. 

Agricultural  Problems  Remaining.  —  Nevertheless  the 
gains  of  the  Southern  farms  during  the  half  century  after 
the  war  did  not  compare  favorably  with  the  gains  in  other 
sections  during  the  same  period.  This  was  due  largely  to  the 
old-fashioned  ways  of  those  who  tilled  the  soil.  At  the  open 
ing  of  the  twentieth  century,  leaders  in  the  South  began 
to  realize  more  seriously  than  ever  that  farming  was  a 
science;  that  untrained  people,  white  or  black,  could  not 
increase  their  crops  as  long  as  they  clung  to  wasteful 


THE   RISE  OF  THE  NEW  SOUTH 


447 


methods ;  and  that  laborers  on  the  land  must  be  educated 
for  their  work. 

The  Industrial  Revolution  in  the  South,  Cotton  Manu 
facturing.  —  The  upbuilding  of  agriculture,  important  as 
it  was,  did  not  constitute  the  sole  concern  of  the  South. 
More  and  more  attention  was  given  to  founding  industries. 


I  DOT  =1.000  BALES 


COTTON  REGIONS  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Before  the  war  Southern  leaders  were  the  plantation  owners, 
many  of  whom  looked  down  upon  what  they  called  the 
"  vulgar  arts  of  trade."  Anyway,  the  employment  of 
slaves  to  manage  complicated  and  expensive  machinery 
was  not  thought  practicable,  and  the  white  people  were  not 
eager  to  leave  their  farms  to  work  in  the  mills. 

After  the  war,  however,  capitalists,  often  from  the  North, 
began  to  build  cotton  mills  in  the  South,  especially  in  the 
hill  regions  where  there  was  coal  or  water  power  and  where 
there  was  a  supply  of  cheap  white  labor.  In  the  forty  years 
between  1860  and  1900  the  number  of  cotton  spindles  in  the 
South  multiplied  more  than  twelvefold  and  the  number  of 


448        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

employees  in  the  cotton  mills  more  than  tenfold.  In  1905 
there  were  nearly  100,000  wage  earners  in  the  cotton  mills 
of  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia. 

The  Iron  and  Steel  Industries.  —  Southern  business 
activity  was  by  no  means  confined  to  cotton  manufac 
turing.  The  South  was  rich  in  timber  for  shipbuilding, 
in  pine  forests  producing  tar  and  turpentine,  in  clays  for 
tile  and  pottery,  in  marble  quarries,  in  phosphate  beds  for 
fertilizers,  and  in  coal  and  iron.  Before  1860  the  South 
bought  nearly  all  of  her  coal  from  Northern  mines ;  by  the 
end  of  the  century  she  was  shipping  coal  abroad.  Within 
twenty  years  after  the  surrender  of  Lee  at  Appomattox, 
iron  and  steel  manufacturers  in  Alabama  and  Tennessee 
began  to  push  their  outputs  into  markets  all  over  the  South 
and  even  into  the  North.  In  1880  Alabama  stood  tenth 
among  the  pig-iron  producing  states;  in  1890  it  stood 
third.  By  1910  the  Southern  states  alone  put  out  more 
coal  and  iron  than  all  the  Union  did  in  1870.  Nashville, 
Chattanooga,  Atlanta,  Memphis,  and  Birmingham  were 
then  rivaling  busy  Northern  cities  in  their  manufacturing 
establishments  and  their  trading  concerns.  Birmingham  was 
a  great  coal  and  iron  center--  the  Pittsburgh  of  the  South. 
The  percentage  of  increase  in  the  number  of  wage  earners 
of  the  south  Atlantic  states  between  1904  and  1909  was 
greater  than  in  New  England  or  the  middle  Atlantic  states. 

The  Development  of  Transportation  Facilities.  —  Natu 
rally  the  building  of  railways  kept  pace  with  the  growth  of 
Southern  industries.  The  railway  system,  which  had  been 
badly  wrecked  by  invading  troops,  was  all  made  over, 
partly  with  the  help  of  the  federal  government.  Through 
out  the  whole  South  the  mileage  rose  from  11,000  in  1870 
to  63,000  in  1910.  The  railways  also  helped  to  develop 
the  industries.  They  created  a  demand  for  iron  and  wood 
products.  They  advertised  the  advantages  of  the  South 


THE   RISE  OF  THE   NEW   SOUTH 


449 


and  invited  Northern  farmers  to  come  down  and  help   in 
the  development  of  Southern  resources. 

Transportation  of  cotton  on  the  Mississippi  River  was 
greatly  aided  by  the  federal  government,  which  established 
a  River  Commission  in  1879,  and  began  to  build  a  system 
of  levees  to  keep  the  turbulent  waters  from  overflowing 


LOADING  COTTON  ON  MISSISSIPPI  RIVER  BOATS  AT  NEW  ORLEANS 

their  banks  and  flooding  the  farms  along  the  valley.  The 
channel  was  dredged  and  straightened  in  many  places,  and 
by  an  ingenious  system  of  dikes  or  "  jetties  "  the  mouth  of 
the  river  was  cleared  and  kept  free  from  the  mud  which  had 
hitherto  hindered  navigation.  This  was  of  great  help  to 
New  Orleans,  now  growing  into  one  of  the  important  ship 
ping  ports  of  the  world. 

With  the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal,  the  Southern 
ports,  especially  Mobile,  New  Orleans,  and  Galveston,  looked 
forward  to  a  rapid  growth  of  their  shipping  enterprises. 

Changes  in  the  Life  of  the  People.  Industrial  Wage 
Workers.  -  -  The  great  revolution  in  industry  and  agricul- 


450        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

ture  deeply  affected  Southern  life  and  labor,  (i)  It  made  a 
demand  for  skilled  labor.  When  the  white  people  went  into 
the  factories,  they  began  to  form  trade  unions  to  fight 
battles  for  higher  wages,  shorter  hours,  and  better  condi 
tions  in  the  mills,  just  as  the  workingmen  of  the  North  had 
done  years  before.  (2)  In  some  respects  this  widened  the 


THE  CUSTOM  HOUSE  AT  CHARLESTON,  AN  EXCELLENT  TYPE  OF  FEDERAL 

BUILDING 

gulf  between  the  white  people  and  the  negroes,  because  the 
former  were  not  willing  to  admit  the  latter  to  their  unions 
or  to  permit  them  to  hold  the  better  jobs  in  the  industries. 
(3)  The  growth  of  manufacturing  also  began  to  attract  to 
the  South  some  of  the  immigrants  from  Europe. 

Growth  of  New  Problems. — The  advance  of  industry  shook 
thousands  of  Southern  people  out  of  their  old  habits  of  life 
and  forced  them  to  think  about  the  industrial  problems  which 
had  so  long  disturbed  the  North  :  about  trade  unions,  the 
education  of  all  the  people,  the  government  of  cities,  the  regu 
lation  of  railways  and  industries,  the  prohibition  of  child 


THE   RISE  OF  THE   NEW   SOUTH  451 

labor,    and   kindred   matters   which   had   not   troubled   the 
South  in  the  old  days. 

The  Planting  Aristocracy  Reduced  in  Power.  —  Perhaps 
the  most  significant  of  the  many  changes  was  the  decline  in 
the  power  of  the  planting  aristocracy.  There  had  long  been 
in  the  South  thousands  of  independent  and  thriving  white 
farmers,  who  owned  no  slaves  and  who  often  looked  with 
disfavor  on  the  system.  But  for  the  most  part  they  had 
accepted  the  leadership  and  control  of  the  powerful  planters. 
As  a  well-informed  Southern  writer,  Edgar  Gardiner 
Murphy,  has  said  of  the  "  common  people  "  : 

Many  of  them  voted  .  .  .  but  as  a  whole  they  stood  aloof;  they 
were  supposed  to  follow  where  others  led ;  they  might  furnish  the 
ballots,  but  the  "superior"  class  was  supposed  to  provide  the  candi 
dates  for  important  offices.  There  was  no  intimate  or  cordial 
alliance  between  their  forces  and  the  forces  of  the  aristocracy. 
Multitudes  of  them  were  left  wholly  illiterate. 

When  slavery  was  abolished  and  the  former  owners  fell 
into  poverty  themselves,  the  white  farmers  and  the  poorer 
white  men  began  to  get  more  power  in  politics.  They  had 
fought  gallantly  in  the  war  against  the  invading  armies 
from  the  North,  and  they  could  no  longer  be  denied  a  share 
in  Southern  leadership  and  control.  In  the  struggle  to  over 
throw  negro  dominion,  established  by  the  federal  government 
during  the  days  of  reconstruction,  all  the  white  people,  rich 
and  poor,  were  united  ;  and  after  it  was  over  the  latter  were 
unwilling  to  accept  the  inferior  position  which  they  had 
formerly  occupied.  The  power  of  the  planter  was  further 
reduced  by  the  rise  of  a  class  of  wealthy  manufacturers 
and  business  men  who  could  not  be  lightly  brushed  aside  by 
political  leaders.  Thus  the  strength  of  the  old  aristocracy 
was  broken  and  the  "  plain  people  "  began  to  rule  in  the 
South. 


452 


THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


III.   THE  RACE  PROBLEM 

The  Condition  of  the  Negro  on  the  Land.  —  From  the  days 
of  reconstruction  down  to  the  present  time,  the  problem 
of  the  negro  has  remained  perplexing  and  troublesome. 
Beginning  in  the  depths  of  poverty,  the  freedmen  had  a 
"  hard  row  to  hoe."  It  was  not  surprising  that,  at  the  end 
of  the  century,  the  negroes  of  the  South,  who  formed  a 


THE  PERCENTAGE  OF  NEGROES  IN  THE  TOTAL  POPULATION  OF  EACH  STATE 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

third  of  the  population,   owned  only  one  fortieth  of  the 
property. 

Division  of  Opinion  among  the  White  People.  —  Proper  treat 
ment  of  the  negroes  is  still  one  of  the  grave  questions  of 
the  South,  and  Southern  people  are  naturally  much  divided 
over  it.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  "  new  democracy  "  of 
plain  people  —  farmers  and  workingmen  —  is  in  many 
respects  not  so  generous  to  the  negro  as  the  planting 
aristocracy  had  been.  Moderate  people  believe  that  the 


THE   RISE  OF  THE  NEW  SOUTH  453 

negroes  should  have  opportunities  to  earn  a  fair  living 
and  receive  education  to  make  them  skillful  in  trades  and 
farming.  A  third  and  important  group  of  people  want  to 
see  the  negroes  do  more  than  merely  earn  a  decent  living; 
hope  that  they  may  become  more  intelligent  and  more 
enterprising;  and  are  eager  to  aid  them  in  improving  their 
life  at  home  and  in  the  fields  or  factories.  Very  few  South 
ern  white  people  believe  that  the  negroes  should  vote  or 
have  any  share  in  the  government. 

Division  of  Opinion  among  the  Negroes.  -  -  The  negroes 
themselves  are  divided  as  to  the  best  way  to  help  their  race. 
One  party,  led  by  Dr.  W.  E.  B.  Du  Bois,  chafed  at  the 
restrictions  imposed  on  the  negro  —  the  denial  of  the  right 
to  vote,  the  separate  railway  coaches,  and  the  other  signs 
of  inferiority  --  and  demanded  equality  of  rights  at  once. 
Another  party,  led  by  Dr.  Booker  T.  Washington,  sought 
to  teach  the  negro  how  to  work  with  his  hands  and  his  head, 
and  to  acquire  the  skill  and  wages  or  property  which  would 
give  him  a  position  of  independence  and  self-respect  in  the 
community. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I .    Imagine  yourself  a  Southern  soldier  returning  to  his  home 
at  the  close  of  the  Civil  War.     Describe  the  condition  of  the  country 
and  the  changes  that  the  war  had  brought.     2.    Contrast  with  the 
experience  of  a  Northern  soldier  returning  to  his  home  in  the  North 
or  the  West.     3.    Make  a  list  of  the  important  difficulties  that 
confronted  the  freedmen  in  gaining  a  livelihood. 

II.  .  I.    What   is   meant   by   the    "renter"    system?     By    the 
"wage"  system?     By  "peonage"?     2.    Why  had  manufacturing 
not  been  greatly  developed  in  the  South  before  the  Civil  War  ? 
What   manufacturing   industries  grew   up  after  the  war  ?     How 
did    this    development    affect    the    negroes  ?     The    poorer   white 
people  ?     The  planting  aristocracy  ? 

III.  i.    What  is  the  present  attitude  of  the  Southern  white 
people   toward   negro   suffrage  ?     Toward   the   education   of   the 


454        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

negro  ?     2.    Compare  the  views  of  Booker  T.  Washington  and  Dr. 
W.  E.  B.  Du  Bois  regarding  the  negro  problem. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Find  all  that  you  can  about  the  life  and  work  of  Booker  T. 
Washington.     Find  what  other  colored  men  have  gained  distinc 
tion  because  of  their  services  in  improving  the  condition  of  their 
people. 

See  Booker  T.   Washington's  "  Up  from  Slavery,"   especially 
chs.  i,  ii,  iii,  iv,  vii,  xii. 

2.  Compare  the  effects  of  the  industrial  revolution  in  the  South 
after  the  war  with  the  effects  of  the  industrial  revolution  in  the 
North  much  earlier.     (See  Chapter  XVI.) 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  FAR  WEST 

I.   THE  "FAR  WEST"  IN  1860 

In  1860  the  Great  West  beyond  the  Mississippi  Valley 
was  almost  unknown  to  the  residents  on  the  Atlantic  sea 
board.  Of  course  there  had  been  published  many  tales  of 
the  grand  rush  to  California  after  the  discovery  of  gold,  of 
the  opening  of  the  rich  Comstock  silver  lode  in  Nevada 
in  the  late  fifties,  of  occasional  brushes  with  the  Indians 
on  the  plains,  and  of  daring  travelers  who  had  hazarded 
the  perils  of  the  deserts  and  mountains  to  reach  the 
Pacific.  Only  a  few  persons,  however,  realized  that  the 
vast  regions  over  which  the  buffalo  and  coyote  roamed  un 
disturbed  could  soon  become  the  seat  of  numerous  and  pros 
perous  states. 

There  was  no  railway  connecting  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific.  In  their  westward  march,  railway  builders  had 
reached  only  as  far  as  St.  Joseph,  Missouri.  More  than 
two  thousand  miles  of  trail  and  mountain  passes  lay  be 
tween  that  straggling  Missouri  town  and  San  Francisco. 
The  journey  was  long  and  dangerous.  It  was  the  lucky 
traveler  who  escaped  unscathed  the  perils  of  the  desert, 
the  snow-bound  mountain  passes,  and  the  marauding 
Indians. 

The  Geography  of  the  Region.  —  Between  the  frontier  states 

-Minnesota,  Iowa,  and  Texas  —  and  the  two  states  on  the 

Pacific,  California  and  Oregon,  which  had  been  admitted  by 

455 


456        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

1860,   lay   a  vast   region   almost   equal  in  area  to   all  the 
older  eastern  states  combined. 


GULF         O     e       MEXICO 


RAILROADS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1860 

Much  of  this  territory  was  unlike  the  rich  prairie  of  the 
Mississippi  and  Missouri  regions.     A  large  part  of  it  was 


THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  FAR  WEST  457 

composed  of  plains  and  high  plateaus  where  little  rain  fell 
and  where  the  vegetation  was  slight ;  indeed  there  were 
millions  of  acres  of  sandy  desert  on  which  hardly  anything 
but  sage-brush  and  cactus  grew.  Beyond  the  great  plains 
lay  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  far  beyond  the  Rockies 
towered  the  Sierra  Nevada,  both  ranges  rich  in  gold,  silver, 
copper,  lead,  and  coal. 

Beyond  the  Sierra  was  the  fertile  Pacific  slope,  much 
of  which  was  well  watered  by  streams,  while  the  remainder 
could  be  tilled  as  soon  as  irrigation  plants  could  be  built. 
In  the  valleys  of  the  Columbia,  Willamette,  Sacramento, 
and  San  Joaquin  rivers  were  millions  of  acres  as  fertile 
for  wheat  growing  as  any  of  the  black  prairies  in  the  Illinois 
or  Missouri  country. 

Communication  with  the  Pacific  Coast.  —  One  thing  was 
essential  to  the  opening  of  the  Great  West.  That  was 
quicker  communication.  In  1860  two  energetic  men  made 
a  start  by  establishing  the  famous  "  pony  express."  They 
bought  six  hundred  bronchos  and  hired  seventy-five  light 
weight  riders.  They  laid  out  a  line  of  travel  along  which 
each  man  should  ride  a  hundred  miles  in  the  plains  or 
forty  miles  in  the  mountains  and  then  be  relieved  by 
another.  Thus  a  continuous  chain  was  made  to  the 
coast.  At  noon,  on  April  3,  1860,  the  first  pony  express 
rider  dashed  out  of  St.  Joseph,  Missouri,  amid  music  and 
cheers,  carrying  with  him  a  letter  from  President  Buchanan 
to  the  Governor  of  California.  Ten  days  later  an  express 
rider,  tired  and  dusty,  galloped  into  Sacramento  on  his 
broncho  with  the  dispatch.  In  December,  1860,  President 
Buchanan's  message  to  Congress  was  published  in  Sacra 
mento  less  than  nine  days  after  its  delivery  in  Washington ! 

Homesteaders  and  Prospectors.  -  -  The  federal  government 
helped  to  fill  up  the  West  by  providing  an  easy  way  for  the 
poorest  of  homeseekers  to  acquire  land.  In  1862  Congress 


458        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

passed  the  famous  Homestead  Law  permitting  settlers  to 
take  up  farms  for  themselves  almost  without  cost. 
Under  it  any  citizen,  man  or  woman,  over  twenty-one,  or 
any  foreigner  who  had  declared  his  intention  of  becoming 
an  American  citizen,  was  entitled  to  "  enter  "  160  acres  of 
land  on  the  government  domain,  free  of  all  charges  except  a 
few  dollars  for  land-office  fees.  Special  favors  were  shown  to 
soldiers  and  sailors  of  the  Civil  War. 

While  the  homeseekers  were  hunting  far  and  wide  for 
fertile  lands  to  settle,  prospectors,  with  pick  and  shovel 
in  hand,  were  climbing  and  delving  in  search  of  precious 
metals.  In  the  early  sixties  they  found  great  deposits  of 
gold  and  silver  in  Nevada,  Idaho,  and  Montana,  and  in  a 
little  while  rich  veins  of  copper  were  unearthed,  especially 
in  Montana.  Silver  was  discovered  in  Utah,  and  thousands 
of  miners  invaded  that  territory,  much  to  the  dismay  of  the 
Mormons. 


II.   NEW  WESTERN  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES 

Nevada.  —  In  1861,  Nevada  was  separated  from  Utah 
and  made  a  new  territory.  It  was  settled  largely  by  miners 
and  Mormons.  Although  it  had  only  about  forty  thousand 
inhabitants,  it  was,  three  years  later,  admitted  to  the  Union 
as  a  state.  President  Lincoln  needed  another  state  to  make 
the  three  fourths  necessary  to  ratify  the  Thirteenth  Amend 
ment  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  abolishing 
slavery  forever. 

Nebraska.  —  In  1867  Nebraska  was  admitted  as  a  state. 
This  region  had  been  organized  into  a  territory  by  the  famous 
Kansas-Nebraska  bill  of  1854,  which  abolished  the  Mis 
souri  Compromise  line,  and  did  much  to  bring  on  the 
Civil  War.  Seven  years  later  it  was  reduced  in  size,  and 
when  it  came  into  the  Union  it  had  only  67,000  inhabitants. 


THE   GROWTH  OF  THE   FAR  WEST  459 

Colorado.  —  A  few  years  after  Nebraska  became  a  state, 
the  people  of  Colorado  asked  for  admission  to  the  Union. 
Congress  had  given  them  territorial  government  in  1861, 
when  the  population  consisted  of  several  thousand  miners 
and  prospectors,  many  of  whom  had  been  drawn  to  Pike's 
Peak  and  the  surrounding  country  by  the  discovery  of 
gold  and  silver  at  Cripple  Creek  and  Leadville.  The 
capital,  named  Denver  in  honor  of  the  Governor  of  Kansas, 
whence  came  some  of  the  early  settlers,  was  founded  in  1858. 
Although  much  of  the  Colorado  territory  was  broken  up  by 
high  mountain  ranges,  there  were  vast  plateaus  and  many 
valleys  which  attracted  settlers  and  home  makers,  and  by 
1875  a  population  of  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  was 
claimed.  The  following  year  Colorado,  to  which  has  been 
given  the  name  Centennial  state,  took  its  place  among  the 
states  of  the  Union. 

The  Western  Territories  in  1876. — A  broad  wedge 
of  largely  unoccupied  territory  separated  the  organized 
states  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  from  their  sister  common 
wealths  in  the  Far  West.  Washington,  Idaho,  Montana, 
Wyoming,  Utah,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Dakota,  and  Indian 
Territory,  were  still  governed  as  territories.  Their  com 
bined  population  in  1870  was  under  half  a  million - 
less  than  that  of  the  little  state  of  Connecticut.  New 
Mexico  with  91,000  inhabitants,  and  Utah  with  86,000, 
with  some  chow  of  reason,  might  have  claimed  a  place  among 
the  states,  because  at  that  time  Oregon  was  inhabited  by 
only  90,000  people. 

Miners  and  Cattlemen. --This  vast  and  sparsely  settled 
region  of  territories  was  then  in  the  second  stage  of  its 
economic  revolution.  The  firstcomers  —  the  trappers,  the 
hunters,  and  the  explorers  —  had  finished  their  work.  Now 
the  miners  were  busy  with  pick  and  shovel,  and  the  ranchmen 
and  cowboys  with  their  herds  of  cattle  were  roaming  over 


460        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

the  great  grazing  plains,  waging  war  on  cattle-thieves  and 
land  companies.  Farmers  were  hunting  for  homesteads 
wherever  fertile  fields  could  be  discovered.  Railway 
builders  were  also  invading  the  domains  of  the  cattle  kings. 
Utah.  —  In  the  early  eighties,  Utah  presented  the  ele 
ments  of  a  well-settled,  industrious  community,  but  its 
admission  to  the  Union  was  delayed  on  account  of  the 


COWBOYS  AT  THE  ROUND-UP 

continued  practice  of  polygamy  by  the  Mormons,  notwith 
standing  an  act  of  Congress,  passed  in  1862,  prohibiting  it. 
In  1887  Congress  passed  a  law  authorizing  the  federal  gov 
ernment  to  seize  the  property  of  the  Mormon  Church  if 
polygamy  did  not  cease. 

Polygamy  Abandoned;  Utah  Admitted  as  a  State.  —  Mean 
time  the  "  gentile  "  population  increased  in  the  territory 
as  industry  and  mining  flourished.  When  the  Mormons 


THE  GROWTH  OF  THE   FAR  WEST 


461 


finally  decided  to  abide  by  the  law,  Congress  was  at  last 
induced  to  admit  Utah  as  a  State  in  1896. 

Although  the  Mormons  were  early  pioneers  and  home 
stead  makers  in  the  Great  West,  their  territory  was,  in 
fact,  the  last  of  the  middle  tier  to  receive  statehood.  In 
their  search  for  a  distant  home,  they  had  left  the  advancing 
frontier  line  far  behind. 

The  Dakotas.  —  To  the  northward  the  "  course  of  empire" 
had  been  checked  by  the  enormous  Sioux  Indian  reservation  in 


MORMON  TABERNACLE,  UTAH 

Dakota,  but  the  discovery  of  gold  in  the  Black  Hills  marked 
the  doom  of  the  redman's  claims.  Miners  and  capitalists 
demanded  that  the  way  be  made  clear  for  their  enter 
prise,  and  the  land-hungry  were  clamoring  for  more  farms. 
Indeed,  before  Congress  could  act,  pioneers  were  swarming 
over  the  regions  around  the  Indian  lands.  Farmers  from  the 
other  Northern  states,  as  well  as  Norwegian,  German,  and 
Canadian  immigrants,  were  planting  their  homesteads  amid 
the  fertile  Dakota  fields. 


462        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

The  Homesteaders  in  Dakota.  —  Under  the  Homestead  Law 
of  1862  (see  page  458),  any  thrifty  person  with  a  little 
money  could  easily  establish  himself  and  his  family  in  a  home 
of  his  own  where  he  could  make  a  living.  Women  had 
the  same  rights  as  men  to  "  take  up  "  lands.  A  railway 
advertisement  of  1877,  inviting  settlers  to  come  to  Dakota, 
warned  immigrants  to  arrive  "  by  the  first  of  May,  if  pos 
sible,  in  order  to  have  time  to  select  their  land,  build  a  house, 


THE  BAD  LANDS,  A  PICTURESQUE  REGION 

and  be  ready  to  commence  breaking  the  prairie  about  the 
first  of  June."  Many  a  settler,  who  had  left  the  eastern 
coast  early  in  the  spring,  found  himself  comfortably  housed 
on  the  Dakota  prairies  with  a  fair  crop  laid  by  before  snow 
fell. 

"^Bonanza"  Farms. — Not  all  the  development  of  the 
Dakota  country,  however,  was  the  work  of  small  farmers 
and  cattlemen.  Often  eastern  capitalists  bought  ten, 
twenty,  or  fifty  thousand  acres,  furnished  the  stock  and 
tools,  and  rented  the  lands  to  tenants.  Thus  there  sprang 
up  in  those  fertile  regions  the  large  "  bonanza  "  farms. 
Some  of  the  big  farmers  located  in  Red  River  Valley, 
in  Dakota,  built  their  own  barges  and  floated  their  grain 


THE  GROWTH  OF  THE   FAR  WEST  463 

to  Fargo,  the  principal  shipping  point  on  the  Northern  Pa 
cific  Railroad. 

North  and  South  Dakota  Admitted.  —  In  1885,  the  legis 
lature  of  Dakota  petitioned  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States,  asking  that  the  territory  be  divided  into  two  parts, 
and  that  each  section  be  admitted  as  a  state.  Finding 
their  plea  for  admission  without  avail,  the  voters  of 
southern  Dakota  called  a  convention,  in  1885,  framed  a 
constitution,  and  threatened  to  come  into  the  Union  un 
asked.  Moderate  counsels  prevailed.  In  1887  the  in 
habitants  voted  in  favor  of  forming  separate  territories, 
and  two  years  later  North  Dakota  and  South  Dakota 
were  admitted  to  the  Union. 

Washington  and  Montana.  —  Far  over  on  the  western  coast 
the  claims  of  Washington  to  statehood  were  urged. 
The  population  there  had  increased  until  it  rivaled  that 
of  Oregon.  In  addition  to  rich  agricultural  areas,  the 
territory  possessed  enormous  timber  resources ;  and  keen- 
sighted  people  foresaw  a  swift  development  of  seaward 
trade.  Prosperous  seaport  cities,  Seattle  and  Tacoma,  had 
grown  up,  competing  with  Portland  and  San  Francisco 
to  the  south,  and  Spokane  was  becoming  the  metropolis 
of  the  "Inland  Empire "  between  the  Cascades  and  the 
Rockies. 

Between  Washington  and  the  Dakotas  lay  the  plains 
and  mountain  regions  of  Montana,  now  rapidly  filling  up 
with  miners  and  capitalists  exploiting  the  gold,  silver,  coal, 
copper,  and  other  mineral  resources,  and  contesting  with 
the  sheep  and  cattle  kings  for  economic  supremacy.  After 
the  fashion  of  enthusiastic  westerners,  the  citizens  of  these 
territories  early  began  to  boast  of  their  "  enormous  "  popu 
lations  and  their  "  abounding  "  wealth,  and  to  clamor  for 
admission  as  states.  On  February  22,  1889,  Washington 
and  Montana  were  admitted  to  the  Union  at  the  same  time 
as  the  two  Dakotas. 


464        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

Idaho  and  Wyoming.  —  Looking  with  jealous  eyes  upon 
their  successful  neighbors,  the  two  territories  of  Idaho  and 
Wyoming  redoubled  their  efforts  in  the  battle  for  statehood. 
With  the  rest  of  the  new  Northwest,  they  were  making 
rapid  strides  forward.  In  July,  1890,  they  were  admitted 
to  the  Union,  Wyoming  bringing  as  voters  the  women,  to 
whom  suffrage  had  been  granted  in  1867. 

Indian  Territory  Opened  to  Settlement.  -  -  The  onward 
marching  white  man  now  began  to  cast  his  greedy  eyes 
upon  Indian  Territory,  which  had  been  set  apart  as  an  Indian 
Reservation  in  1834.  For  a  long  time  speculators  and 
"  boomers,"  as  well  as  prospective  settlers,  had  been  covet 
ing  the  lands  in  the  Oklahoma  district  of  the  Indian  Terri 
tory,  and  were  continually  breaking  over  the  boundaries. 
The  federal  government,  weary  of  driving  them  off  the 
forbidden  grounds,  decided  to  buy  out  the  Indians  and  to 
open  the  region  as  Oklahoma  Territory  for,  settlement  at 
noon  on  April  22,  1889. 

Oklahoma. --Thousands  of  people  were  camped  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  border  line,  awaiting  the  day  and  the  hour 
when  the  opening  was  to  take  place,  ready  to  rush  in  pell- 
mell  and  stake  out  the  best  claims.  A  bugle  blast 
gave  the  signal  that  the  Indian  lands  were  free  for  settle 
ment,  and  an  army  of  men  with  families  in  wagons,  men 
and  women  on  horseback  and  on  foot,  burst  into  the  terri 
tory. 

The  first  night  cities  of  tents  were  raised  at  Guthrie  and 
at  Oklahoma  City,  and  in  ten  days  frame  buildings  ap 
peared.  These  towns  grew  with  amazing  rapidity.  In  a 
single  year  they  had  schools,  churches,  several  .newspapers, 
and  well-built  business  houses.  Other  towns  in  the  terri 
tory  grew  with  the  same  speed,  and  many  of  them  were  of 
substantial  growth,  although  a  number  were  "  boom  towns," 
which  quickly  fell  into  decay.  Within  fifteen  years  Okla- 


THE  GROWTH  OF  THE   FAR  WEST 


465 


homa  had  a  population  of  over  half  a  million.     In  1907  it 
was  admitted  as  the  forty-sixth  state.     The  new  state  in- 


THE  RUSH  TO  OKLAHOMA  CITY 


OKLAHOMA  CITY  FOUR  WEEKS  LATER 


eluded  Oklahoma  Territory  and  the   remainder  of  the  old 
Indian  Territory. 

Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  Alaska. -- In    1912,  the  last 
of  the  continental  territories,  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  were 


466        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

granted  statehood,  making  forty-eight  states  in  all.  In  the 
same  year  Congress  provided  a  territorial  legislature  for 
Alaska,  which  up  to  that  time  had  been  governed  by  a 
governor  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate  under 
acts  of  Congress.  Alaska  had  been  purchased  from  Russia 
in  1867  for  $7,200,000.  It  contained  more  than  590,000 
square  miles,  that  is,  an  area  more  than  twice  the  size  of 
Texas;  but  at  first  it  was  called  a  "worthless  iceberg." 
However,  it  removed  another  foreign  neighbor  —  Russia 
—  from  our  immediate  vicinity,  which  was  considered  an  im 
portant  political  stroke.  A  short  time  after  the  purchase, 
wonderful  gold,  silver,  and  coal  deposits  were  found  in 
Alaska,  as  well  as  productive  fisheries  and  other  resources. 
The  people  then  realized  that  the  "iceberg"  was  one  of  the 
valuable  assets  of  the  nation. 


III.    THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  PUBLIC  LAND 

Policies  of  Land  Disposal.  —  In  the  development  of  the 
Great  West  the  disposal  of  the  public  lands  by  the  govern 
ment  of  the  United  States  was  a  matter  of  deep  concern  to 
the  whole  nation. 

In  the  beginning  it  was  the  policy  of  the  government 
to  dispose  of  the  public  lands  in  large  sections,  sometimes 
embracing  millions  of  acres,  to  private  companies  and  specu 
lators  who,  in  turn,  broke  up  their  purchases  into  smaller 
plots  and  sold  them  to  actual  farmers  and  settlers.  At 
the  same  time  was  adopted  the  practice  of  selling  small 
holdings  directly  to  actual  settlers  or  farmers  at  a  very  low 
rate. 

From  time  to  time,  down  until  1862,  the  federal  govern 
ment  passed  new  laws  making  it  easier  for  poor  people  to 
acquire  small  holdings  of  public  lands  in  the  West.  In 
1862,  as  we  have  seen,  came  the  great  Homestead  Act 


THE  GROWTH  OF  THE   FAR  WEST  467 

which  enabled  any  person  to  secure  practically  free  a 
farm  of  160  acres.  In  addition  to  these  laws,  special  timber 
and  stone  acts  were  passed,  providing  that  lands  not  avail 
able  for  farming  could  be  sold  to  lumber,  stone,  and  mining 
companies  and  individuals  at  low  rates.  Tens  of  millions  of 
acres  were  also  given  to  railroad  companies  to  help  them 
construct  railway  lines  in  the  growing  West.  Furthermore 
enormous  grants  were  made  to  the  states  for  educational 
purposes. 

The  Evils  of  Land  Monopoly.  -  -  The  government's  land 
policy  helped  millions  of  men  and  women  in  the  East 
and  in  the  Old  World  to  secure  free  or  cheap  homesteads 
in  the  West.  The  purpose  of  the  Homestead  Act  was 
to  encourage  the  upbuilding  of  the  West  by  free  home- 
owning  farmers.  Nevertheless,  land  speculators  and  com 
panies,  often  by  fraudulent  means,  secured  millions  of  acres 
of  land  intended  for  actual  settlers  and  transformed  them 
into  great  estates  tilled  by  tenants.  These  speculators 
employed  men  to  enter  farms  under  the  Homestead 
Act,  and  then  sell  the  land  immediately  to  a  company. 
It  was  estimated  that  at  the  opening  of  the  twentieth 
century  fifty-four  individuals  and  companies  owned  more 
than  twenty-five  millions  of  acres  of  western  lands  —  an 
area  greater  than  seven  of  the  more  populous  eastern  states. 
Their  great  domains,  outrivaling  in  size  and  value  the 
estates  of  the  European  nobility,  were  sometimes  obtained 
through  flat  violation  of  the  federal  law. 

The  Roosevelt  Public  Land  Commission.  -  -  The  Govern 
ment  Public  Lands  Commission,  appointed  by  President 
Roosevelt,  after  a  long  and  careful  study  of  the  matter 
said  that  the  effect  of  the  land  law  was,  far  too  often,  "  to 
bring  about  land  monopoly  rather  than  to  multiply  small 
holdings  by  actual  settlers."  It  also  added  that  there  were 
too  many  speculators  and  not  enough  homes  on  former 


468        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

government  lands,  and  that  many  tracts  were  fraudulently 
held. 

Further  Disclosures.  -  -  The  report  of  President  Roose 
velt's  Land  Commission  was  supplemented  in  1914  by  the 
report  of  President  Wilson's  Industrial  Relations  Com 
mission,  which  brought  out  the  following  startling  facts  : 

1.  Vast   estates   were   tilled   by   day   laborers,  who  were 
paid  shamefully  low  wages. 

2.  Where  the  estates  were  let  to  small  farmers,  tenants 
often  had  to  pay  such  high  rents  that  they  were  scarcely  able 
to  make  ends  meet. 

3.  The  owners  of  many  huge  estates  lived  in  the  East 
or  in  Europe,  and  seldom  saw  their  property  or  took  any 
interest  in  it  except  to  secure  the  largest  possible  profits 
from  it;    in  other  words,  the  United  States  had  "  an  ab 
sentee  landlord  "  problem  like  that  of  Ireland. 

4.  Many  of  these  vast  estates  were  managed  by  over 
seers    whose    principal    concern    was    to    please    their    em 
ployers  by  wringing  as  much  profit  as  possible  from  the  day 
laborers. 

The  Spread  of  the  Tenant  System.  --  It  is  not  only  on  these 
great  domains,  originally  acquired  from  the  federal  govern 
ment,  that  tenant  farming  exists.  Indeed,  it  is  steadily 
increasing  in  the  older  eastern  states  as  well  as  in  the 
West  and  Southwest.  In  many  states  the  number  of  actual 
home-owning  farmers  is  steadily  decreasing  and  their  places 
are  being  taken  by  renters.  To  some  extent  this  has  been 
due  to  the  fact  that  prosperous  farmers  often  retire  to  the 
towns  in  their  old  age  and  rent  their  lands.  In  part  it  is 
due  to  the  lack  of  educational  opportunities  and  training  in 
farm  management.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  cause, 
the  striking  fact  remains  that  at  the  opening  of  the  twen 
tieth  century  only  twenty-nine  per  cent  of  the  people  of  the 
United  States  owned  their  own  homes. 


THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  FAR  WEST  469 

Wasteful  Agricultural  Methods.  —  In  view  of  the  popular 
indifference  to  the  serious  growth  of  tenant  farming,  it  is 
not  surprising  to  find  a  similar  indifference  to  all  manner 
of  waste  in  the  treatment  of  the  soil.  As  some  one  has  said, 
the  western  pioneers  "  mined  the  land  " ;  that  is,  they 
planted  profitable  crops  that  took  all  the  fertility  out  of 
the  soil  —  just  as  the  miners  took  the  coal  out  of  the  earth 
-  and  left  it  barren,  moving  on  to  new  and  fertile  regions. 
Where  the  timber  was  cut  in  a  thoughtless  way,  the  rains 
washed  the  rich  topsoil  into  the  creeks  and  rivers,  and  car 
ried  down  to  the  sea  the  fertile  earth  that  would  have  pro 
duced  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  grain  and  fruits.  In  the 
Far  West,  also,  the  pasture  lands  were  often  ruined  by  the 
so-called  "  cattle  barons "  who,  in  their  haste  to  make 
fortunes  out  of  their  herds,  permitted  the  stock  to  destroy 
all  the  herbage  and  ruin  the  water  holes. 

Mismanagement  of  Timber  and  Mineral  Lands.  -  -  The 
government  was  equally  careless  in  the  disposition  of  tim 
ber  and  mineral  lands.  Railway  and  lumber  companies 
were  permitted  to  acquire  enormous  areas,  to  cut  timber 
at  will,  and  to  monopolize  immense  lumber  resources.  In 
the  early  days  companies  and  individuals  were  allowed 
to  acquire,  for  a  pittance,  great  waterfalls,  in  order  to  em 
ploy  the  power  for  driving  machinery  or  making  electricity. 
If  the  government  had  been  careful  in  the  management 
of  the  water  power  on  its  domains,  this  "  white  coal  "  would 
have  brought  millions  of  dollars  into  the  public  treasury, 
and  power  sources  acquired  only  to  prevent  competition 
might  have  been  put  to  use.  The  same  may  be  said  of  val 
uable  mineral  lands  which  were  sold  at  trivial  prices  to  pri 
vate  persons  and  companies. 

At  the  opening  of  the  twentieth  century,  the  government 
was  compelled  to  devote  a  great  deal  of  attention  to 
correcting  as  far  as  possible  the  mistakes  of  the  past  and 


470        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

to    "conserving   natural  resources"   for  wiser  uses  in  the 
future. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.    Mark  on  an  outline  map  the  region  of  the  Far  West 
that  was  practically  unsettled  at  the  time  of  the  Civil  War.     How 
large  was  this  region  as  compared  with  the  settled  part  of  the 
country  ?       2.    How   was    communication    maintained    with    the 
Pacific  coast  before  the  days  of  the  railroad  and  telegraph  ?       3. 
What  were  the  important  provisions  of  the  Homestead  law  ?     Why 
was  the  government  so  generous  in  giving  land  to  settlers  ? 

II.  i.    How   did   it   happen   that   Nevada   was    admitted    as 
a  state  so  long  before  many  of  the  territories  to  the  east  of  it  ? 
2.    What  led  to  the  early  settlements  in  Colorado  ?     Why  is  Col 
orado    called    the    "Centennial"    state?       3.    What    people    had 
first  settled  Utah  ?     Why  was  the  admission  of  Utah  as  a  state 
so  long  delayed  ?     Under  what  conditions  was  it  finally  admitted  ? 
4.    What  led  the  settlers  at  first  to  avoid  the  Dakotas  ?     When 
were  the  Dakotas  finally  admitted  ?     5.    At  what  time  did  Wash 
ington  and  Montana  become  states  ?     How  long  before  this  had 
Oregon  been  admitted?     (See  table  of  states,  Appendix,  p.  641.) 
6.   Why  was  the  present  state  of  Oklahoma  formerly  known  as 
"Indian  Territory"?     How  did  it  come  to  be  settled   by  white 
people    and   admitted   as  a  state  ?       7.    What  are  the  youngest 
states  of  the  Union  and  when  did  they  become  states  ?       8.    How 
did   this   country  come  into   possession  of  Alaska  ?     What  was 
thought    of   this    region    at   the    time  ?     Why    has    this    opinion 
changed  ? 

III.  I.    In  what  way  did  the  land  companies  succeed  in  get 
ting  possession  of  public  lands  ?     What  were  the  evils  of  this 
"land  monopoly"?       2.    What  is  meant  by  a  "tenant"  farmer? 
Why  has  the  number  of  such   farmers  increased   during  recent 
years  ?     What  are  the  dangers  of  having  so  much  land  farmed 
by  those  who  do  not  own  it?       3.    Why  should   a  country  be 
particularly  careful  not  to  waste  its  forests  ?     Why  is  it  unwise 
to  let  corporations  secure  permanent  or  long-time  possession  of 
water-power  ? 


THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  FAR  WEST  471 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Imagine  yourself  taking   a  trip   by   stage   coach   from   St. 
Joseph  to  San  Francisco  at  the  time  of  the  Civil  War.     Describe 
how  you  would  have  traveled   and  what  you  would  have  been 
likely  to  see. 

See  Hitchcock's  "The   Louisiana   Purchase,"    ch.  xv;     Mark 
Twain's  "Roughing  It,"  chs.  i-viii. 

2.  In  what  different  ways  did  the  geography  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  country  (the  surface,  rainfall,  rivers,  etc.)  influence  the 
settlement  of  this  region  ? 

See    your    geographies;     also    Brigham's    "Geographic    Condi 
tions  of  American  History,"  chs.  viii  and  ix. 

3.  Look  up  stories  of  life  on  the  homesteads  and  ranches  of 
the    West,    such    as    Hamlin    Garland's    "  Son    of    the    Middle 
Border." 


CHAPTER  XXV 
THE  TRIUMPH  OF  INDUSTRY 

The  government,  in  order  to  keep  the  armies  in  the  field 
during  the  Civil  War,  called  for  immense  supplies  of  iron,  steel, 
wagons,  cotton  and  woolen  cloth,  hardware,  railway  materials, 
arms  and  ammunition,  as  well  as  immense  stores  of  flour, 
bacon,  and  other  farm  produce.  As  a  result  of  this  extraor 
dinary  demand,  the  building  of  railways,  the  opening  of 
mines,  the  erection  of  factories,  and  the  invention  of  wonder 
ful  machines  and  labor-saving  devices  went  on  with  marvel 
ous  speed.  Within  a  few  years  the  value  of  farms  was 
far  exceeded  by  other  kinds  of  property;  such  as  railroads, 
mills,  mines,  city  office  buildings,  and  investments  in  indus 
tries  of  all  kinds. 

It  is  impossible  in  a  brief  book  like  this  to  describe  the 
great  strides  taken  in  American  industry  and  commerce 
since  1860.  There  are,  however,  several  "  basic  industries, " 
so  called  because  they  are  the  foundations  of  nearly  all  of 
the  other  industries,  which  require  special  mention.  Among 
these  are  included  iron,  steel,  copper,  coal,  oil,  and  textile 
industries. 

I.    THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MANUFACTURING  AND  MINING 

The  Age  of  Iron  and  Steel.  — Many  writers  truly  speak  of 
this  as  the  iron  age,  and  a  little  thought  will  show  how  de 
pendent  the  nation  really  is  upon  this  industry.  Without 
it  no  railway  lines  could  bind  the  East  and  the  West,  the 

472 


THE  TRIUMPH  OF  INDUSTRY 


473 


North  and  the  South.  It  affords  the  framework  for  sky 
scrapers  in  the  cities,  materials  for  bridges,  factory  buildings, 
engines,  machines,  and  agricultural  implements.  Without 
iron  and  steel  the  United  States  could  be  only  a  farming 
country,  with  crude  methods  of  farming  and  with  stage 
coaches  and  wagons  for  transporting  passengers  and  goods. 
Continued  Dependence  on  Europe.  --The  immense  orders 
for  guns,  engines,  rails,  and  other  war  materials,  from 


Wms.  Eng.  Co.,  N.V. 


IRON  DEPOSITS  or  THE  UNITED  STATES 

1861  to  1865,  gave  a  great  impetus  to  the  iron  and 
steel  industry  of  Pennsylvania,  which  was  the  chief  seat 
of  that  business.  The  masters  and  men  in  the  foundries, 
though  straining  every  nerve  to  meet  the  increasing  de 
mands  upon  them,  could  by  no  means  supply  the  home 
market.  Before  1860  the  American  railway  companies  had 
been  compelled  to  look  to  England  for  most  of  their  steel 
rails  and  locomotives,  and  for  twenty  years  after  that  date 
the  United  States,  in  spite  of  the  tariff,  imported  several 
hundred  thousand  tons  of  rails  annually. 


474        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

New  Discoveries  and  Rapid  Development.  —  About  1870 
the  iron  ranges  of  the  Lake  Superior  region  were  discov 
ered  and  ore  was  shipped  in  huge  quantities  to  the  works 
at  Pittsburgh,  Buffalo,  Cleveland,  and  Chicago.  The 
South  also  began  to  do  her  share,  for  rich  deposits  of  iron 
were  unearthed  in  West  Virginia,  Tennessee,  and  Alabama. 
To  transform  the  ore  into  pig-iron  and  steel,  great  iron 
mills  were  erected  in  those  regions. 


STEEL  MAKING  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  MILLS 

The  iron  mills  of  Pennsylvania  also  steadily  enlarged  their 
production.  By  1895,  the  importation  of  steel  rails  from 
abroad  had  nearly  ceased  and  thousands  of  tons  were  being 
sent  out  to  supply  the  markets  of  the  world.  At  the  begin 
ning  of  the  twentieth  century,  the  output  of  American  steel 
was  greater  than  that  of  Germany  and  Great  Britain  com 
bined,  and  the  annual  export  of  steel  from  the  United  States 
was  larger  than  that  of  the  world's  workshop,  Great  Britain. 

The   Development  of  Other  Mineral  Industries.     Oil.— 
The  development  of  other  mineral  resources  kept  pace  with 
iron  and  steel.     Petroleum  was  discovered  in  Pennsylvania 
in  1859,  and  during  the  war  it  was  extensively  used  by  the 
government.     The  oil  regions  of  Pennsylvania  were  soon 


THE  TRIUMPH  OF  INDUSTRY  475 

dotted  with  derricks  and  wells.  By  1872  petroleum  stood 
fourth  in  rank  among  American  exports.  Refineries  were 
early  established  in  Allegheny  County,  Pennsylvania,  and 
in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  to  transform  the  crude  oil  into  kerosene, 
gasoline,  and  other  products.  The  famous  Standard  Oil 
Company  operating  one  of  two  hundred  fifty  refineries, 
produced,  in  1870,  only  about  four  per  cent  of  the  total  out 
put.  Within  fifteen  years  it  had  become  the  leading  com 
pany  in  the  United  States  and  controlled  about  ninety-five 
per  cent  of  the  supply.  From  the  East,  the  oil  industry 
spread  into  the  South  and  West, -- Texas,  Oklahoma,  and 
California,  where  are  now  the  most  productive  oil  fields. 

Coal.  --  By  1890  the  annual  production  of  anthracite  and 
soft  coal  and  iron  ore  exceeded  the  wildest  dreams  of  the 
miners  of  old  days.  New  fields  were  opened  by  prospectors 
in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Minnesota,  Ala 
bama,  and  Colorado ;  and  regions  that  had  formerly  been  a 
wilderness  or  farming  land,  were  transformed  into  manu 
facturing  and  mining  districts. 

Gold.  — To  the  wealth  drawn  from  the  ground  in  the  East 
were  added  the  precious  metals  of  the  West.  The  gold  fields 
of  California  had  been  seized  when  the  rush  of  miners  came 
in  1849;  but  in  a  little  while  prospectors  had  pushed  out 
into  the  mountain  ranges  of  Nevada,  Idaho,  Montana,  and 
Colorado,  where  they  found  treasures  that  made  the  fortunes 
won  by  Cortez  and  Pizarro  in  Mexico  and  Peru  look  paltry. 

Copper. — About  the  time  that  the  Lake  Superior  iron 
region  was  opened  up,  copper  deposits  were  discovered  in 
the  same  district,  and  the  mines  of  northern  Michigan  pro 
duced,  in  1875,  more  than  sixteen  thousand  tons  of  copper 
-  almost  the  entire  output  of  the  country.  This  supply 
was  vastly  increased  a  few  years  later  by  the  discovery  of 
new  deposits  in  the  mountain  ranges  of  the  West  —  Mon 
tana,  Utah,  Arizona,  and  Colorado. 


476        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


The  Development  of  the  Textile  Industries.  --The  same 
story  of  progress  may  be  told  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods. 
New  England  manufacturers  steadily  increased  the  num 
bers  of  their  spindles  and  looms,  particularly  at  the  great 
centers,  --  Manchester,  Lawrence,  Lowell,  Providence,  and 


\       L*  '  C°LO-°0       I 


Anthracite 
luminous 
E%;%l  SubbituminoTts  &  Lignite 


COAL  DEPOSITS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Fall  River,  —  until  by  the  close  of  the  century  the  United 
States  was  making  about  ninety  per  cent  of  all  the 
cotton  cloth  which  it  used  and  was  exporting  huge 
quantities.  Long  before  the  close  of  the  century,  South 
ern  mills,  mainly  in  North  and  South  Carolina,  began  to 
rival  the  New  England  factories  by  turning  out  millions  of 
pounds  of  cotton  yarn  annually.  As  for  carpets,  some  one 
has  estimated  that  the  yearly  output  of  American  looms 
would  stretch  twice  around  the  globe.  Philadelphia  became 
the  greatest  carpet-manufacturing  center. 

The  Extent  of  Industrial  Progress.  —  Space  will  not  per 
mit  us  to   record   the  other   developments  which  wrought 


THE  TRIUMPH  OF   INDUSTRY 


477 


a  revolution  in  the  life  and  labor  of  the  people,  but  we 
may  sum  up  the  results  roughly:  In  1910  the  value  of 
American  industries  was  more  than  six  times  their  value 
in  1860.  In  1900  there  were  fifteen  groups  of  industries 
each  of  which  produced  more  than  a  billion  dollars'  worth  of 
goods  annually.  The  list  included  iron  and  steel,  textiles, 
lumber,  and  food  products. 


.>7(        T — i 

-J        ")  MONT.  I       N.  DAK. 


/     «MWo*"7 

r--C.°   / 


3NT.  I       N.DAK.      • 

O  I  °  \     • 

(• )  MINN.  ^ 

1  •   «   ? 

I         6.  DAK. 


WYO. 


l~      °          (— 
I \ 

NEBR.          S 


Tt  °    I 

ov- 1  urM  r  -'-(-•-?— ^--K 

/  COLO.  ^         _  \J 

«  I  KAN.  i       M0.     XM 

vr'          / 
)   «*.    / 

-^ 
\^ 


•  $150,000,000 

C  $112, 500, 000  to  $150, 000, 000 

»  $75,000,000  to  $112, 500, 000 

O  $37,500,000  to  (75, 000, 000 

O  £ess  than  $37,500,000 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  MANUFACTURING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  (ANNUAL  VALUE) 

The  value  of  the  annual  output  of  mines  and  factories  is 
far  greater  than  that  of  all  the  farms  stretching  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  Moreover,  the  center  of  manufactur 
ing  has  moved  slowly  westward  until  it  is  now  in  the  state 
of  Ohio. 

II.    THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  TRANSPORTATION 

The  Development  of  Railroads. --This  extraordinary 
revolution  in  all  parts  of  the  country  would  have  been  im 
possible  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  rapid  building  of  railways 
and  canals  and  the  growth  of  coast,  lake,  and  river  shipping. 


478 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


THE  TRIUMPH  OF   INDUSTRY  479 

In  1860  there  were  only  30,000  miles  of  railway  lines  in  the 
United  States.  By  1910  there  were  242,000  miles.  The 
early  builders  of  railroads  naturally  turned  their  attention 
to  the  construction  of  lines  between  important  eastern  cities, 
such  as  Boston  and  Albany,  Philadelphia  and  Reading, 
New  York  and  Buffalo.  By  1860  the  great  cities  of  the 
East  like  Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia  were  con 
nected  by  various  routes  with  Buffalo,  Detroit,  Chicago, 
Indianapolis,  and  St.  Louis ;  and  pioneers  in  railway  build 
ing  had  even  advanced  more  than  a  hundred  miles  beyond 
the  Mississippi.  Chicago  was  linked  with  New  Orleans ; 
Savannah  with  Atlanta,  Chattanooga,  and  Nashville. 

The  First  Transcontinental  Railroad  (1869).  --  The  great 
triumph  came  with  the  opening  of  the  Union  Pacific  Rail 
road.  The  necessity  of  binding  the  country  together  with  a 
"  cross  continent  "  line  was  early  recognized  by  business 
men.  In  1862  Congress  chartered  the  Union  Pacific  Rail 
way  Company,  giving  it  the  right  to  build  tracks  through  the 
public  domain  and  making  it  a  large  loan  of  money  and  gift 
of  land.  The  line  was  constructed  by  two  companies :  one 
working  westward  from  Omaha,  Nebraska;  the  other 
eastward  from  Sacramento,  California.  The  two  construc 
tion  companies  met  near  Ogden,  Utah,  in  1869,  and  it  was  an 
nounced  to  the  world  that  the  East  and  the  West  were  bound 
together  by  "  a  band  of  steel  that  would  never  be  broken." 

The  Fever  for  Railroad  Construction.  --  While  this  one 
grand  line  was  being  built  across  the  continent,  hundreds  of 
short  lines  were  being  constructed  in  every  direction,  north 
and  south.  People  everywhere  invested  money  in  railways, 
expecting  to  get  rich  in  a  hurry.  Farmers  and  merchants 
along  new  lines  bought  the  stocks  and  bonds.  Cities, 
townships,  counties,  and  states  granted  lands  and  voted 
money  to  companies  in  order  to  secure  connections  with  one 
another  and  with  the  outside  world. 


480        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


THE  TRIUMPH  OF   INDUSTRY  481 

Government  Subsidies  for  Building  Railroads.  —  The  fed 
eral  government,  as  well  as  state  and  local  governments,  paid 
a  large  part  of  the  cost  of  many  early  railways.  Congress 
either  gave  money  or  guaranteed  bonds  for  railroad  compa 
nies  to  the  amount  of  tens  of  millions  of  dollars,  and  then 
gave  them  enormous  areas  of  land  besides.  Up  to  1872,  the 
federal  government  had  granted  in  aid  of  railways  155,000,- 
ooo  acres  of  land,  an  area  estimated  as  "  almost  equal  to  the 
New  England  states,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania  com 
bined  ;  nineteen  different  states  had  voted  sums  aggregating 
$200,000,000  for  the  same  purpose ;  and  municipalities  and 
individuals  had  subscribed  several  hundred  million  dollars 
to  help  railway  construction." 

In  1890  it  was  estimated  that  the  government  had  granted 
337,740,000  acres  of  public  lands  to  companies  and  to  states 
for  wagon  roads,  canals,  river  improvements,  and  railroads. 
This  empire  was  equal  to  one  sixth  of  the  total  area  of  the 
United  States  and  three  times  the  area  of  France. 

The  Influence  of  the  Railroads. --The  great  progress  in 
American  business  was  promoted  by  these  lines  of  com 
munication  running  in  every  direction.  They  connected 
the  farming  regions  of  the  western  plains  with  the  seaports 
of  the  East,  enabling  the  farmers  to  rush  their  products 
into  European  markets  and,  in  return,  to  receive  the 
manufactured  products  of  the  Old  World  and  of  the  East. 
They  encouraged  the  settlement  of  the  far-off  and  back 
ward  regions,  until  almost  every  arable  acre  of  the  country 
was  brought  under  the  plow.  They  made  it  possible  for 
the  prospectors  and  miners  who  tapped  the  rich  mineral  re 
sources  of  the  earth  to  pour  their  heavy  materials  into  the 
markets  in  every  corner  of  the  country.  By  linking  all  sec 
tions  they  helped  to  bind  them  into  a  closer  national  unity. 

The  Merchant  Marine.  —  In  aiding  railway  lines  the 
government  did  not  overlook  shipping  along  the  American 


482        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

sea  coasts  and  on  the  Great  Lakes.  Special  protection  against 
foreign  competition  was  granted.  Between  1860  and  the 
end  of  the  century  that  shipping  multiplied  threefold.  Ship 
owners  engaged  in  carrying  goods  from  Boston  to  New  York 
and  to  Charleston,  for  example,  or  from  Chicago  to  Buffalo, 
steadily  increased  their  business  until  their  ships,  in  size, 
speed,  and  strength,  were  equal  to  the  ocean-going  liners. 
Where  protection  was  not  afforded,  however  —  on  the  high 
seas  —  the  tonnage  of  American  ships  engaged  in  foreign 
trade  steadily  declined,  until  about  the  close  of  the  century 
it  was  less  than  half  what  it  had  been  at  the  end  of  the  Civil 
War.  At  the  opening  of  the  twentieth  century  more  than 
nine  tenths  of  the  goods  exported  from,  and  'imported  into, 
the  United  States  were  carried  in  ships  flying  foreign  flags. 

This  decline  of  ocean-going  American  shipping  was  respon 
sible  for  the  constant  demand  that  Congress  should  grant 
money  to  American  business  men  who  undertook  to  build 
and  operate  vessels  across  the  seas.  Such  grants,  known 
as  "  ship  subsidies,"  were  strongly  opposed,  chiefly  by 
the  West  and  South,  on  the  ground  that  we  should  ship 
our  goods  in  the  cheapest  way.  They  were  warmly  sup 
ported,  however,  in  the  seaboard  states,  and  also  by  those 
who  held  that  we  should  strengthen  our  navy  by  training 
up  a  body  of  able  sailors  in  the  merchant  marine.  It  was 
not  until  President  Wilson's  administration'  that  Congress 
voted  money  and  provided  aid  in  the  construction  of  a  high- 
seas  marine. 

Changes  Due  to  Development  in  Industry  and  Transpor 
tation. — The  changes  in  American  life,  which  we  have  men 
tioned  in  Chapter  XVII,  became  even  more  vital  and  more 
widespread.  Instead  of  a  handful  of  inventors,  there  was 
a  great  army ;  instead  of  a  few  thousand  miners  and  mill 
workers,  there  were  millions ;  instead  of  a  few  merchant 
princes,  financiers,  and  captains  of  industry,  there  were 


THE  TRIUMPH  OF  INDUSTRY  483 

thousands.  In  the  westward  regions  there  was  heard  the 
roar  of  mills  and  furnaces.  In  the  valleys  and  on  the 
mountain-sides  of  Colorado,  Montana,  Utah,  and  Nevada, 
where  in  the  days  of  Antietam  and  Gettysburg  only  the 
handiwork  of  nature  was  seen,  there  began  to  gleam  the 
fires  of  the  furnaces  and  smelters,  and  heaps  of  gray  slag 
were  piled  so  high  that  they  almost  rivaled  the  mountains. 
Where  in  Lincoln's  day  ran  the  pony  express  and  the 
stagecoach,  there  now  rushed  swift  trains  bearing  passengers 
and  freight  East  and  West. 


III.    THE  ARMY  or  INDUSTRY  :  INVENTORS,  BUSINESS 
MEN,   AND  ARTISANS 

The  Great  Service  Rendered  by  Inventors.  —  Among  the 
millions  of  individuals  who  worked  in  our  great  industries,  we 
may  put  first  the  inventors,  who  are  to  be  numbered 
literally  by  the  tens  of  thousands.  It  seems  hardly  just 
to  name  any  of  them,  for  not  one  of  the  many  inventions 
made  in  the  last  half  century — the  typewriter,  tin  can, 
telephone,  phonograph,  airplane,  wireless  telegraph,  electric 
light,  electric  car,  self-binding  reaper,  and  automobile,  to 
mention  only  a  few  —  is  entirely  the  work  of  a  single  in 
ventor. 

The  republic  of  inventors,  like  the  republic  of  letters,  is 
really  universal.  A  need  is  felt,  and  a  score  or  more  of  in 
ventors,  sometimes  unknown  to  each  other  and  living  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  or  of  the  world,  attempt  to 
meet  it.  They  gather  ideas  from  the  work  of  other  thinkers 
and  from  writings  of  students.  They  experiment  and  make 
little  gains  here  and  there,  one  adding  to  the  work  of  an 
other,  until  at  length  a  marvelous  machine  is  produced. 

The  Slow  Accumulation  of  Improvements. --We  associate 
with  the  name  of  Alexander  Graham  Bell,  of  Boston,  the 


484 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


invention  of  the  telephone,  and  we  know  that,  in  fact,  he 
really  brought  it  into  human  service,  basing  his  achieve 
ments  on  more  than  a  century's  experiments  in  the  field 
of  electricity.  After  Bell  demonstrated  the  practical  use 
of  the  telephone,  hundreds  of  other  inventors  added  to  it, 
refining  it  here  and  there,  until  in  1915  the  continent  was 

spanned,  and  the  Mayor  of 

j  , _.r-^.        New  York  was  able  to  talk 

"~1     to  the  Mayor  of  San  Fran 
cisco. 

Who  then  devised  the 
telephone  which  we  use  to 
day  ?  A  thousand  inven 
tors  or  more,  most  of  them 
nameless  and  unhonored  in 
the  pages  of  history.  What 
is  the  date  of  the  invention 
of  the  telephone  ?  Super 
ficial  writers  may  fix  it  at 
1876,  when  Bell  made  his 
first  successful  experiment 
over  a  few  miles  of  wire ;  but  the  accurate  historian  will 
have  to  record  that  the  invention  of  the  telephone  covers 
more  than  a  century,  from  the  time  when  men  first  began 
to  experiment  with  electricity,  down  to  the  latest  hour. 

The  same  is  true  of  other  inventions.  We  speak  of  the 
invention  of  the  arc  light  by  Charles  H.  Brush,  of  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  in  1878,  and  undoubtedly  he  was  a  great  genius. 
Nevertheless  his  work  rested  upon  older  experiments  with 
electricity,  and  was  only  the  beginning  of  many  improve 
ments.  We  associate  the  invention  of  the  incandescent 
electric  lamp,  the  phonograph,  and  the  electric  street  car 
with  Thomas  A.  Edison,  the  "  Wizard  of  Menlo  Park  "  ;  and 
yet  justice  requires  us  to  say  that  Edison  drew  to  his  aid  the 


BELL'S  FIRST  TELEPHONE 


THE  TRIUMPH  OF   INDUSTRY  485 

experiments  and  failures  of  hundreds  of  other  inventors. 
He  added  ideas  of  his  own.  We  think  of  the  Wright  brothers 
in  connection  with  the  airplane,  but  many  other  inven 
tors  helped.  The  aluminum  industry  and  the  gas  engine 
had  to  be  brought  to  a  high  state  of  perfection  before  flying 
machines  could  be  of  practical  utility.  We  commonly  con 
nect  the  invention  of  the  wireless  with  the  name  of  the 
Italian  genius,  Marconi,  but  he  was  only  one  among  a 
large  group  of  foreign  and  American  workers  who  con 
tributed  to  the  solution  of  the  problem.  It  was  not  until 
the  electrical  industry  was  well  advanced  that  it  was  pos 
sible  to  think  of  sending  messages  through  vast  spaces  with 
out  the  aid  of  wires. 

By  the  activities  of  hundreds  of  scientists  and  inventors  a 
new  world  of  human  endeavor  was  created.  Scientific  books 
and  periodicals  were  published,  and  scientific  instruction  was 
established  in  the  schools  and  colleges.  The  thought,  in 
genuity,  and  hopes  of  millions  were  quickened,  and  the 
spirit  of  discovery  and  invention  entered  the  very  life  of  the 
nation. 

Thomas  A.  Edison.  —  One  of  the  most  interesting  and 
important  facts  about  the  inventors  is  that  so  many  of  them 
came  from  the  common  walks  of  life  rather  than  from  the 
"  aristocracy  of  wealth  and  talent/*  Of  this  great  army 
Thomas  A.  Edison  may  perhaps  be  placed  at  the  head  ; 
although  he,  realizing  how  much  there  is  yet  to  be  done  in 
the  conquest  of  nature's  forces,  is  the  most  modest  of 
men.  He  was  born  in  1847,  at  Milan,  Ohio.  He  was  not 
sent  to  school  and  college,  but  received  such  education  as 
he  had  from  his  mother.  His  parents  were  poor,  and  when  he 
reached  the  age  of  twelve  he  became  a  newsboy  on  the 
railway  between  Detroit  and  Port  Huron,  Michigan.  His 
mind  was  always  full  of  wonder,  and  he  kept  his  eyes  open 
watching  everything  that  went  on  about  him.  Before  he 


486        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


had  reached  the  age  of  twenty-one,  he  made  two  or  three 
important  inventions.  In  1869  he  removed  to  the  East, 
and  began  a  long  series  of  experiments  which  produced  the 
many  new  devices  and  improvements  on  other  inventions 


. 

'  . 


EDISON  IN  His  LABORATORY  AT  WEST  ORANGE,  N.  J. 

which  are  connected  with  his  name ;  such  as  the  incandes 
cent  electric  light,  the  electric  street  railway,  the  phono 
graph,  the  mimeograph,  the  storage  battery,  and  the  mov 
ing  picture. 

The  Work  of  the  Business  Men.  —  Before  an  invention 
can  be  widely  used,  a  business  must  be  organized  to  manu- 


THE  TRIUMPH  OF   INDUSTRY  487 

facture  it  in  large  quantities.  So  we  must  rank  with 
the  inventors  the  huge  army  of  business  men,  merchants, 
manufacturers,  and  capitalists,  who  organized  companies, 
raised  the  money,  and  brought  together  the  supplies 
necessary  to  industry  on  a  vast  scale  -  "  captains  of  in 
dustry  "  and  "barons  of  finance "  as  they  are  sometimes 
called,  richer  and  more  powerful  than  kings  of  old.  Some 
of  these  men  had  for  a  main  purpose  the  making  of  large 
sums  of  money.  Others  had  visions  of  mighty  industrial 
organizations  spanning  the  continent  and  spreading  out  into 
all  portions  of  the  world. 

Like  the  inventors,  they  began  with  little  things  and 
simple  enterprises,  and  then  advanced  to  larger  and  more 
difficult  tasks.  Take,  for  example,  the  first  railway  mag 
nates.  They  thought  that  the  construction  of  fifty  or  a 
hundred  miles  <  of  railway  was  a  great  achievement.  In 
time,  however,  came  the  Vanderbilts,  the  Goulds,  and  the 
Harrimans,  who  combined  and  organized  thousands  of 
miles  of  railways,  bringing  together  under  one  company  a 
mileage  stretching  more  than  halfway  across  the  conti 
nent.  Then  there  were  manufacturers  like  Andrew  Carnegie 
and  John  D.  Rockefeller,  who  began  with  little  things  and 
gradually  reached  out  in  every  direction,  until  they  built  up 
enormous  business  corporations,  employing  armies  of  workers 
and  controlling  vast  resources. 

The  Standard  Oil  Company  is  a  kingdom  in  itself,  with  its 
innumerable  wells,  refineries,  pipe  lines,  steamships,  stores, 
and  branch  offices  in  the  United  States  and  in  every  part 
of  the  world.  In  Siam,  India,  China,  Russia,  and  in  the 
waste  and  out-of-the-way  places  of  the  earth,  the  signs  of 
that  great  company  may  be  seen. 

Then,  again,  there  is  the  Bell  Telephone  Company,  one 
of  whose  early  managers  had  a  vision  of  "  a  telephone  link 
ing  every  cottage,  village,  and  city  in  the  country."  As  a 


488        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

result  of  this  vision  and  the  labors  of  the  managers  and 
employees,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  find  any  place  of  human 
habitation  out  of  reach  of  the  telephone. 

All  this  would  not  have  been  brought  about  if  there  had 
not  risen  also  barons  of  finance  like  J.  P.  Morgan,  who  were 
able  to  collect  millions  and  even  billions  of  dollars  to  finance 
gigantic  enterprises.  The  money  power  was  concentrated  in 
the  business  sections  of  cities  with  their  stock  exchanges, 
their  brokers'  offices,  their  banks  and  trust  companies. 

The  Service  of  the  Laborers.  —  Last,  but  by  no  means  least, 
was  the  still  mightier  army  of  laborers,  men  and  women,  skilled 
and  unskilled,  ranging  from  the  low-paid  wielder  of  shovel 
and  pickax  to  the  carefully  trained  scientist  and  mechani 
cian.  The  industries  described  above  could  never  have 
grown  out  of  small  proportions  had  it  not  been  for  the  mil 
lions  of  laborers  drawn  from  every  clime  —  Irish,  Germans, 
Poles,  Hungarians,  Italians,  Bohemians,  Czechs,  Jews, 
Greeks,  Slovaks,  and  the  rest.  Without  this  vast  labor 
supply,  the  work  of  the  inventors  and  the  enterprise  of  the 
capitalists  would  have  accomplished  nothing. 

Without  laborers,  "  King  Industry  "  would  have  ruled  over 
a  shadow  realm  and  his  coffers  would  have  been  empty. 
The  laborers  were  the  people  who  mined  his  ores,  dug  his 
coal,  built  his  railways,  kept  vigil  at  his  humming  machinery, 
operated  his  great  furnaces,  wrought  his  iron  work,  lifted 
up  his  towering  sky-scrapers.  They  not  only  did  his  work ; 
they  peopled  the  industrial  centers ;  they  were  the  "  plain 
citizens  "  upon  whose  conduct  and  character  depended  the 
very  life  of  the  nation. 

IV.    THE  RESULTS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT 

The  Development  of  the  Export  Trade.  -  -  Through  the 
labors  of  its  people  the  United  States  was  enabled  to  take 
its  place  among  the  first  industrial  nations  of  the  earth.  The 


THE  TRIUMPH   OF   INDUSTRY  489 

products  of  mill  and  mine  as  well  as  those  of  the  farm  went 
into  all  corners  of  the  earth.  Business  men  searched  for 
fresh  opportunities  to  sell  their  goods  and  to  invest  their 
money,  competing  with  the  British  and  the  Germans  in 
Mexico,  Central  America,  South  America,  and  the  Orient. 
They  delivered  shiploads  of  manufactured  products  to 
European  markets  where  their  fathers  had  been  only 
buyers.  They  unloaded  at  Liverpool  steel  billets  at  a 
price  that  frightened  the  English  steel  magnates,  who,  in 
older  days,  had  found  only  customers  in  America.  Thus 
the  United  States,  in  the  search  for  markets  and  profitable 
investments,  became  a  "world  power." 

The  "Frontier"  Disappears. — Another  chief  result  of 
this  progress  was  the  disappearance  of  the  frontier  and  the 
backwoods.  King  Industry  must  view  all  of  his  dominion 
from  the  mountain  top.  There  must  be  no  precious  metals 
or  ores  or  waterfalls  or  mysterious  places  hidden  to  his  gaze. 
His  subjects  search  in  the  highways  and  byways,  in  the 
mountain  passes,  in  the  deserts  and  canons,  in  the  forests, 
by  the  seaside  —  everywhere,  for  nature's  materials  to  trans 
form,  and  for  nature's  resources  to  develop.  Under  his  rule, 
railways,  like  a  vast  network  of  veins  and  arteries,  run  in 
every  direction.  The  government  comes  to  his  aid,  and  by 
its  rural  free-delivery  system,  carries  mail  and  gathers  it 
up  along  the  seldom  trod  pathways  and  in  the  prosperous 
farming  regions.  The  governments,  federal  and  state,  spend 
millions  of  dollars  building  highways,  opening  up  remote 
regions,  where  a  generation  ago  the  settlers  for  a  week  at 
a  time  never  saw  a  stranger.  Instead  of  the  old  toll  roads 
of  ten  or  twenty  miles,  there  are  stretches  of  macadam 
highways  hundreds  of  miles  long. 

As  the  backwoods  regions  were  opened  up,  and  cities  built, 
the  center  of  population  moved  westward.  In  1800  it  was 
a  few  miles  west  of  Baltimore;  in  1850  it  was  near  the 


490        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


border  of  southern  Ohio;  in   1880  it  was  beyond  Cincin« 
nati ;  and,  in  1910,  it  was  near  Bloomington,  Indiana. 

Business  and  Industry  Gain  on  Farming.  -  -  The  marvel 
ous  advance  in  industry  and  commerce  brought  in  its  train 
a  revolution  in  American  life.  The  United  States  was  not 
to  be  what  Jefferson  had  hoped  :  in  the  main,  a  nation  of 
independent,  home-owning  farmers.  The  number  of  wage 


K 


Louisville 

K    E    N    T    U    0 

Wmn.Eng.C0.,N.Y. 


THE  WESTWARD  MOVEMENT  OF  THE  CENTER  OF  POPULATION 

workers  as  compared  with  the  farmers  was  to  be  larger  and 
larger  from  decade  to  decade.  Between  1860  and  the  end 
of  the  century  the  total  population  of  the  United  States  in 
creased  about  threefold,  while  the  number  of  wage  workers 
increased  fivefold,  that  is,  from  1,300,000  to  6,600,000.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  the  great  majority  of  voters 
were  farmers  and  planters  ;  at  the  opening  of  the  twentieth 
century  the  business  men  and  wage  workers  promised  soon 
to  outnumber  the  workers  on  the  land. 

The  Growth  of  the  Cities.  -  -  The  growth  of  industry  also 
meant  a  steady  increase  in  the  number  of  people  living  in 


THE  TRIUMPH  OF   INDUSTRY  491 

cities  and  towns.  In  1860,  only  about  one  sixth  of  the 
American  people  dwelt  in  towns  of  over  10,000.  By  the 
end  of  the  century  the  proportion  had  grown  to. one  third. 
The  census  of  1910  recorded  that  nearly  one  half  of  the 
people  lived  in  towns  of  2500  and  over.  In  Massachusetts, 
for  example,  more  than  nine  tenths  of  the  people  lived  in 
towns  of  over  2500;  in  New  York  the  proportion  was 
nearly  eight  tenths,  and  in  Pennsylvania,  six  tenths.  In 
the  forty  years  between  the  first  inauguration  of  Lincoln  and 
the  second  inauguration  of  McKinley,  Chicago  grew  from 
1 10,000  to  1,700,000 ;  New  York  from  1,200,000  to  3,400,000 ; 
and  San  Francisco  from  57,000  to  343,000. 

Industrial  Development  Brings  Many  Evils.  Poverty.  - 
The  massing  of  the  people  in  towns  became  very  serious, 
especially  because  so  many  of  them  were  poor  immigrants 
who  spoke  no  English  and  were  accustomed  to  living  on  low 
wages.  Being  unable  to  seek  employment  themselves,  they 
readily  fell  into  the  hands  of  "  patrons  "  or  "  gang  bosses  " 
of  their  own  countrymen,  who  farmed  them  out  as  laborers 
and  took  part  of  their  wages.  The  people  of  each  nation 
ality  tended  to  cling  together  and  form  a  separate,  section 
of  the  population  almost  as  much  out  of  touch  with  American 
life  as  though  they  were  living  in  the  Old  World.  Unskilled 
laborers  often  received  low  wages  and  were  frequently  out 
of  employment ;  they  were  forced  to  live  cheaply  in  crowded 
tenements ;  and  they  were  the  victims  of  poverty  and 
disease.  The  industrial  workers,  being  compelled  to  migrate 
from  place  to  place  in  search  of  employment,  were  unable 
to  buy  homes  of  their  own,  and  from  two  thirds  to  nine 
tenths  of  them  became  permanent  renters. 

Child  Labor  and  Woman  Labor. — The  problems  of  the 
wage  workers  were  all  the  more  serious  because  the  number 
of  women,  girls,  and  children  employed  out  of  their  homes 
grew  steadily  from  year  to  year.  By  1870  about  one  sev- 


492         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

enth  of  the  women  over  sixteen  years  of  age  were  employed 
in  gainful  pursuits,  and  in  1900  the  number  had  increased  to 
more  than  one  fifth.  In  the  latter  year,  about  one  third  of 
the  women  of  Philadelphia  were  employed  for  wages,  and 
about  one  eighth  of  them  were  working  in  factories.  At  the 
same  time,  18,000  out  of  42,000  women  at  Fall  River,  Massa 
chusetts,  were  wage  workers  —  about  15,000  of  them  in  fac 
tories.  Owing  to  the  difficulties  of  forming  unions  among 
women,  their  wages,  even  for  the  same  work  as  done  by 
men,  were  in  many  trades  very  low,  and  their  poverty  was 
bitter  in  the  extreme. 

Industrial  Panics.  The  Panic  of  1873. — Americans 
rushed  with  such  haste  into  constructing  railroads,  opening 
mines,  and  building  factories,  that  they  overdid  things 
and  every  few  years  there  was  a  big  "smash"  in  business. 
In  1873  there  came  a  great  industrial  "panic,"  which  was 
attributed  at  the  time  to  the  building  of  more  factories, 
mills,  mines,  and  oil  refineries  than  the  demand  for  goods 
warranted.  Moreover,  there  was  so  much  capital  invested 
in  railroads  that  it  was  impossible  for  the  traffic  to  pay 
interest  on  it.  So  it  happened  that  hundreds  of  railroad 
companies  were  forced  into  bankruptcy.  Some  of  them,  re 
duced  the  wages  of  their  employees.  This  action  brought 
on  strikes,  such  as  the  famous  strike  of  1877  on  the  Penn 
sylvania  Railroad. 

The  Panic  of  1892-3.  —  Another  great  panic  occurred  in 
the  early  nineties,  when  business  was  paralyzed.  Thousands 
of  workmen  were  out  of  employment  tramping  the  streets 
hunting  for  jobs,  and  strikes  broke  out  all  over  the  country. 
It  was  then  that  a  band  of  unemployed,  led  by  "  General  " 
Coxey,  marched  to  Washington  to  demand  relief  from  the 
government.  In  such  periods  of  business  disorder  serious 
havoc  was  wrought,  particularly  among  the  working  people. 
The  unemployed  were  often  compelled  to  beg  for  bread ; 


THE  TRIUMPH  OF   INDUSTRY  493 

homes  were  broken  up  because  fathers  had  to  go  away  from 
them  to  find  employment ;  men  and  women,  once  honorable 
and  honored,  were  often  changed  into  beggars  and  thieves 
because  they  were  in  such  desperate  circumstances. 

The  Waste  of  Natural  Resources.  The  Forests  and  Alines. 
-  While  business  men  were  pressing  forward  with  their 
industries  with  so  little  heed  to  the  lives  of  the  working  people 
crowded  in  the  cities,  they  were  equally  reckless  in  using  up 
the  natural  resources  of  the  country.  The  fur-bearing  animals 
were  slaughtered  to  get  as  much  immediate  profit  as  possible 
for  the  fur  dealers.  All  the  great  fishing  grounds  would  have 
been  ruined,  had  not  the  national  and  state  governments 
established  fishing  commissions  to  re-stock  the  waters  and 
keep  up  the  supply.  Millions  of  acres  of  timber  were 
cut  over  in  haste  to  make  money;  only  the  best  trees 
were  taken,  and  they  were  permitted  to  fall  so  as  to  injure 
young  growth.  Careless  woodmen  allowed  fires  to  sweep 
over  thousands  of  acres,  destroying  millions  of  dollars' 
worth  of  timber.  The  same  waste  occurred  in  mining. 
In  their  hurry  to  make  profits,  the  mining  companies 
cut  out  only  the  best  ores  or  the  most  profitable  veins 
of  coal,  leaving  in  abandoned  mines  immense  untouched 
stocks. 

In  picturing  the  triumph  of  industry,  therefore,  we  must 
not  leave  out  of  our  account  the  darker  shades  —  the  legacy 
of  serious  problems  which  it  bequeathed  to  the  future.  We 
marvel  at  the  ingenuity  of  the  inventors  ;  we  wonder  at  the 
colossal  enterprises  of  the  business  men ;  and  we  admire 
the  skill  and  swiftness  of  the  industrial  workers.  It  is 
fitting  that  we  should  do  this ;  but  we  must  remember  that 
the  thought  and  vigilance  of  generations  of  citizens  will  be 
taxed  to  the  utmost  to  bring  out  of  this  mighty  industrial 
revolution  the  best  and  happiest  life  for  the  millions  who 
labor  for  their  daily  bread. 


4.94         THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.  In  what  ways  did  the  Civil  War  stimulate  manufacturing 
in  the  North  ?  What  kinds  of  manufactured  goods  are  increased 
in  demand  by  war  ?  What  kinds  of  goods  are  likely  to  decrease  in 
demand  ?  2.  State  some  of  the  reasons  explaining  why  Pennsyl 
vania  became  a  great  center  for  the  iron  and  steel  industries. 
Iron  ore  is  abundant  around  Lake  Superior,  but  there  are  few 
furnaces  and  steel  mills  in  that  region.  Why  ?  Where  is  the  ore 
from  the  Lake  Superior  region  turned  into  iron  and  steel  products  ? 
3.  Locate  on  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States  the  principal 
regions  producing :  (a)  iron  ore ;  (b)  copper ;  (c)  petroleum ; 
(d)  hard  coal ;  and  (e)  soft  coal. 

II.  I.    Why   would    the    industrial    development    have    been 
impossible   without   the    development  of   railroads    and    canals  ? 
2.    When   was   the   first   transcontinental   railroad    opened  ?       3. 
What  is  meant  by  a  "subsidy"  ?     Why  did  the  federal  govern 
ment   grant   subsidies   for  the   building  of  railroads  ?       4.    Why 
were  ocean  steamship  lines  also  not  granted  subsidies  ?       5.    In 
what  kind  of  trade  was  our  merchant  marine  chiefly  engaged  in 
the  late  nineteenth  century  ? 

III.  I.    Whose  name  is  connected  with  the  invention  and  de 
velopment  of  the  telephone  ?       2.    What  other  great  inventions 
have  been  made  or  developed  by  Americans  ?       3.    Tell  the  story 
of  Thomas  A.  Edison.       4.    Why  were  the  business  men  impor 
tant  in  the   development  of  industry  ?     Who  were   some  of  the 
great  "captains  of  industry"?       5.    What  part  did  the  artisans 
and  laborers  play  in  the  triumph  of  industry  ? 

IV.  I.  Name  the  important  results  of  the  great  development 
of  industry  since  the  Civil  War.  2.  Why  is  export  trade  impor 
tant  to  a  nation?  3.  What  is  meant  by  the  "disappearance  of 
the  frontier"  ?  4.  How  did  industrial  development  influence 
the  growth  of  cities  ?  5.  What  were  some  of  the  evils  that 
came  with  the  growth  of  industry  ?  6.  What  is  meant  by  an 
"industrial  panic"  ?  What  were  the  two  great  panic  years  ? 

Review.  Make  a  list  of  the  developments  following  the  Civil 
War  that  made  the  United  States  into  a  "World  Power." 


THE  TRIUMPH  OF   INDUSTRY  495 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Think  over  and  discuss  the  ways  in  which  the  development 
of  one  industry  helps  the  growth  of  other  industries  :    how  the 
railroads,  for  example,  helped  agriculture,  and  at  the  same  time 
created  a  large  demand  for  steel  products;    how  the  growth  of  the 
farms  helped  manufacturing  of  all. sorts;  and  how  the  growth  of 
railroads  and  manufacturing  helped  mining. 

2.  Tell  the  story  of  the  telephone. 

See  Mowry's  "American'Inventions  and  Inventors,"  pp.  286- 
291. 

3.  Find  out  all  that  you  can  about  the  development  of  lighting 
from  the  days  of  the  tallow  candle  to  the  invention  of  the  incandes 
cent  electric  light. 

See  Mowry's  "American  Inventions  and  Inventors,"  pp.  67- 
89. 

4.  Look  up  the  life  of  Edison  in  Wheeler's  "  Thomas  Edison." 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

IMMIGRATION 

I.   THE  EARLY  SOURCES  OF  IMMIGRATION 

The  Population  of  the  Early  Republic.  --  When  American 
independence  was  declared,  more  than  three  fourths  of  the 
population,  if  we  exclude  the  slaves,  were  of  English  and 
Scotch  descent.  Here  and  there  throughout  the  country 
were  scattered  settlers  from  other  nations :  Germans  in 
Pennsylvania,  Swedes  in  Delaware,  Dutch  in  New  York, 
Irish  and  Welsh  in  the  Middle  Colonies,  and  a  few  French 
Huguenots  at  various  points.  If  the  United  States  however 
had  shut  out  all  other  aliens  and  reserved  the  land  for  the 
descendants  of  citizens  residing  here  at  the  time  of  the 
Revolution,  the  total  population  at  the  opening  of  the 
twentieth  century,  it  is  estimated,  would  have  been  about 
thirty-five  millions  instead  of  nearly  one  hundred  millions. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  Republic  there  were  many  people 
who  looked  with  disfavor  on  foreign  immigration.  JefFer- 
son,  for  example,  wanted  to  keep  artisans  and  their  work 
shops  in  Europe.  It  was  almost  fifty  years  before  other 
nationalities  than  the  English  and  Scotch  began  to  take  an 
important  rank. 

The  Coming  of  the  Irish  and  the  Germans.  -  -  The  first 
marked  invasion,  that  of  the  Irish  and  the  Germans,  opened 
about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Many  of  the 
Irish  stopped  in  the  cities  and  sought  employment  as 
manual  laborers,  or  went  out  into  the  construction  camps 

496 


IMMIGRATION 


497 


where  railways  and  canals  were  being  built.  The  Germans, 
on  the  other  hand,  seemed  at  first  to  prefer  farming.  Per 
haps  a  major  portion  of  them  went  west  and  bought  land  or 
entered  government  domains  opened  to  settlers. 

The   Homestead  Law  Stimulated  Immigration.  —  -  There 
was  a  lull  in  immigration  for  a  few  years  after  1860;  even 


IMMIGRANTS  LANDING  AT  ELLIS  ISLAND,  THE  UNITED  STATES  IMMIGRATION 

STATION 

those  who  wished  to  escape  from  oppression  and  starvation 
in  Europe  did  not  relish  the  idea  of  going  to  a  country  en 
gaged  in  a  desperate  war.  The  federal  government  therefore 
decided  to  make  special  efforts  to  encourage  able-bodied 
foreigners  to  come  to  our  shores.  The  Homestead  Act  of 
1862  provided  that  aliens  who  declared  their  intention  of 
becoming  citizens  could  secure  free  homes  in  the  West. 
This  law  also  induced  thousands  of  native  laborers  to  move 


498        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

West  to  become  farmers,  thus  leaving  in  the  mills  vacant 
places  which  attracted  the  operatives  of  Europe. 

The  Bureau  of  Immigration  Established.  -  -  Two  years 
later,  in  1864,  the  government,  still  more  anxious  to  increase 
the  labor  supply,  passed  a  law  making  it  legal  for  immi 
grants  in  Europe  to  pay  their  way  over  to  the  United 
States  by  pledging  their  wages  in  advance.  Since  a  rush 
of  foreigners  was  to  be  expected,  this  act  provided  that  the 
President  should  appoint  a  Commissioner  of  Immigration  to 
superintend  the  admission  of  aliens,  and  to  protect  new 
comers  from  "  sharpers "  and  thieves.  As  the  authors  of 
the  law  foresaw,  the  pent-up  flood  of  migration  broke  forth 
again.  Contractors  sent  agents  abroad  to  secure  laborers 
to  work  in  the  mines,  on  the  railroads,  and  in  the  factories. 
These  agents  advanced  money  to  the  laborers  to  pay  their 
passage,  and  bound  them  by  contract  to  work  for  a  certain 
number  of  months  under  orders  until  the  money  was  paid 
back.  Those  who  came  under  this  arrangement  were  not 
unlike  the  bond  servants  who  were  brought  into  Pennsyl 
vania  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

Immigration  Immediately  after  the  Civil  War.  The 
Scandinavians. — Western  land,  opened  under  the  Home 
stead  act,  like  a  powerful  magnet,  drew  thrifty  peasants  to 
our  shores.  For  twenty  years  after  the  war,  the  Germans 
and  the  Irish  made  up  the  bulk  of  the  foreign  immigration ; 
but  many  settlers  came  also  from  Denmark,  Sweden,  and 
Norway.  When  Prussia  with  the  help  of  Austria  wrested 
Schleswig-Holstein  away  from  Denmark  in  1864,  thousands 
of  Danes  fled  to  the  United  States.  The  Scandinavians  took 
advantage  of  the  offer  of  free  land  in  the  West  and,  by  the 
thousands,  settled  in  Iowa,  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  and  the 
Dakotas.  They  developed  prosperous  farms,  built  schools 
and  churches,  and  founded  colleges.  No  immigrants  to  these 
shores  proved  to  be  more  worthy  of  their  heritage  than  the 
newcomers  from  Northern  Europe. 


IMMIGRATION 


499 


rail-        —'  i.-1-- 


The  Chinese.  —  In  this  period  the  Chinese  began  to 
land  in  large  numbers  on  the  western  coast.  Indeed,  as 
early  as  1852,  twenty-five  thousand  of  them  were  already 
in  California.  The  firstcomers  were  mainly  domestic  serv 
ants,  laun- 
drymen,  and 
day  laborers. 
When 

road  con 
struction  be 
gan  in  the 
Far  West, 
contractors, 
casting  about 
for  a  labor 
supply, 
found  it  in 
China.  Then 
Chinese  im- 
migra  t  ion 
increased 
rapidly.  Ev 
ery  induce 
ment  was 
offered  t  o 
them  to 
come,  and 


A  CHINESE  MERCHANT  IN  His  SHOP 


they  were  cordially  received.  The  Oriental,  however,  was 
willing  to  accept  low  wages,  and  so  took  work  away 
from  the  native  Americans  or  compelled  them  to  reduce 
their  demands  in  order  to  hold  their  places.  As  he 
was  also  willing  to  live  in  cheap  houses  and  poor  sur 
roundings,  he  menaced  the  American  standard  of  living. 
When  American  working  men  in  large  numbers  began  to 


500        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


settle   on  the  coast,  ill  will  toward  the  Chinese  arose  and 
steadily  increased. 

II.   CHANGES  IN  IMMIGRATION  AFTER  1890 

The  Invasion  from  Southern  and  Eastern  Europe.  New 
Peoples.  —  A  second  era  in  the  history  of  immigration 
opened  about  1890.  The  new  period  was  marked,  in  the  first 
place,  by  a  decided  change  in  the  nationality  of  the  immi 
grants.  The  number  coming  from  Great  Britain,  Ireland, 
and  Germany  fell  off  rapidly,  and  the  proportion  from 
Scandinavian  countries  did  not  increase.  By  1896  the 
immigrants  from  Austria-Hungary,  Italy,  and  Russia 
greatly  outnumbered  those  from  the  north  and  west 
of  Europe,  and  in  1910  nine  tenths  of  all  the  immi 
grants  arriving  in  the  United  States  were  from  the  south 
and  east  of  Europe.  Jews,  who  by  the  tens  of  thousands 
were  driven  out  of  Russia  and  Rumania  by  cruel  op 
pression,  really  had  no  choice  but  to  flee  to  the  United 
States. 

The  following  table  shows  by  decades  the  proportion  of 
immigrants  coming  into  the  United  States  from  the  various 
countries  of  the  Old  World  : 


YEARS 

1861-1870 

1871-1880 

1881-1890 

1891-1900 

1901-1910 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Austria-Hungary  .... 

0-33 

2.60 

6.70 

16.00 

24.40 

German  Empire     .... 

35-°° 

25-50 

28.00 

14.00 

3-90 

Italy,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia    . 

•5i 

2.00 

5-90 

18.00 

23.30 

Russian    Empire   and    Fin 

land 

02 

I  QO 

A    AQ 

14.  OO 

1  8  20 

United  Kingdom  : 

38.00 

England    

15.60 

I2.OO 

6.00 

4.40 

Ireland      

I5-50 

12.00 

10.00 

3.90 

Other  Countries     .     . 

26.14 

36.90 

3I.OO 

22.00 

21.90 

IMMIGRATION 


501 


The  Later  Immigrants  Settle  in  the  Cities.  —  The  Change  in 
the  nationality  of  the  immigrants  was  accompanied  by  a 
great  change  in  the  United  States  itself;  namely,  the  end 
of  free  gifts  of 
land  in  the  West. 
Between  1850 
and  1860,  out  of 
the  public  lands 
there  could  have 
been  provided 
nearly  four  hun 
dred  acres  for 
every  immigrant 
who  entered  the 
United  States, 
and  at  least  half 
of  this  land 
would  have  been 
fertile  soil.  By 
1906,  however, 
the  amount  of 
available  public 
land  per  immi 
grant  had  fallen 
to  less  than  sev- 


MULBERRY  STREET,  NEW  YORK,  WHERE  MANY 
IMMIGRANTS  HAVE  COLLECTED 


enty  acres,  a 
large  part  of 
which  was  semi- 
arid  and  conse 
quently  worthless  without  irrigation.  In  this  period, 
therefore,  the  opportunities  for  securing  free  farms  were 
almost  closed  to  the  immigrants  from  Europe. 

The    newcomers    had  to    settle   in    cities.     The    Russian 
Jews  entered  the  ready-made  garment  trade  in  great  centers 


502         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

like  New  York,  Rochester,  and  Chicago.  Hungarians, 
Italians,  Slovaks,  and  Poles  took  up  heavy  tasks  like 
mining  and  iron  working,  which  called  for  more  physical 
strength.  Immigrants  during  this  period  built  the  rail 
roads,  developed  the  mines,  manned  the  coke  ovens  and 
blast  furnaces,  made  clothing,  and,  in  fact,  furnished  the 
labor  for  most  of  the  manufacturing  in  the  country. 

The  immense  and  valuable  labor  services  rendered  by  the 
aliens,  men  and  women,  are  thus  eloquently  summed  up 
by  a  modern  writer  who  represents  the  immigrant  as.  saying: 

I  contribute  eighty-five  per  cent  of  all  the  labor  in  the  slaughtering 

and  meat-packing  industries. 
'.   do  seven  tenths  of  the  bituminous  coal  mining. 

do  seventy-eight  per  cent  of  all  the  work  in  the  woolen  mills. 

contribute  nine  tenths  of  all  the  labor  in  the  cotton  mills. 
'.   make  nineteen  twentieths  of  all  the  clothing. 
.   manufacture  more  than  half  the  shoes. 

build  four  fifths  of  all  the  furniture. 

make  half  of  the  collars,  cuff's  and  shirts. 

turn  out  four  fifths  of  all  the  leather. 

make  half  the  gloves. 

.  refine  nearly  nineteen  twentieths  of  the  sugar. 
I  make  half  of  the  tobacco  and  cigars. 

Enormous  Increase  in  Immigration.  —  A  third  great 
change  in  immigration  was  brought  about  by  the  im 
provement  in  the  methods  of  travel.  In  former  days, 
when  the  journey  was  long,  expensive,  and  hazardous, 
the  emigrants  expected  to  leave  their  native  land  forever 
and  to  find  permanent  homes  in  the  United  States.  When, 
however,  it  became  possible  to  cross  the  Atlantic  very 
comfortably,  at  a  low  cost,  in  six  or  seven  days,  and 
there  were  sailings  every  few  hours,  the  ocean  trip  was  a 
light  matter.  Great  steamship  companies,  practically  all 
of  them  foreign  in  ownership  and  utterly  indifferent  to  the 
effects  of  their  actions  on  America,  began  to  force  im- 


IMMIGRATION 


503 


migration.  They  sent  agents  into  every  nook  and  cranny  of 
Europe  with  orders  to  encourage,  even  by  gross  misrepre 
sentation,  every  person  who  could  scrape  together  a  little 
money  to  migrate  to  "  the  land  of  milk  and  honey."  Ameri 
can  railway  companies,  equally  bent  on  making  profits  by 
carrying  immigrants  West  and  South,  eagerly  cooperated 


I        \Lcss  than  1 
1233  J  to  5  per  cent 
KTZffi  5  to  10  per  cent 
10  to  15  per  cent 
'5  per  cent 
S5  to  35  per  cent 
35  to  50  per  cent 
50  per  cent  and 


PERCENTAGE  OF  FOREIGN-BORN  WHITE  PEOPLE  AND  NATIVE  WHITE  PEOPLE  OF 
!  '    FOREIGN  OR  MIXED  PARENTAGE  CONTAINED  IN  THE  TOTAL  POPULATION 

in  tearing  the  laborers  and  peasants  of  Europe  from  their 
native  lands  and  flinging  them  upon  our  shores. 

As  a  result  of  all  these  forces,  the  steerage  of  every  in 
coming  steamer  was  crowded  with  passengers.  In  1907 
there  arrived  in  this  country  1,285,349  immigrants.  Thus, 
in  one  year,  there  was  collected  from  the  nations  of  southern 
and  eastern  Europe  an  army  of  immigrants  equal  to  almost 
half  of  the  white  population  of  the  United  States  when  the 
War  for  Independence  was  fought.  By  1910  one  third  of 
the  total  white  population  in  the  United  States  was  either 
foreign  born  or  of  foreign  parentage. 


504        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

Many  of  the  Later  Immigrants  Not  Permanent  Set 
tlers.  —  Having  brought  their  ships  over  crowded  with 
steerage  passengers,  the  steamship  companies  were  equally 
anxious  to  find  passengers  to  fill  their  vessels  on  the  return 
voyage.  Their  prosperity  depended  upon  a  continual  going 
and  coming.  The  low  rates  made  it  possible  for  work- 


A  CITY  STREET  IN  A  TENEMENT  DISTRICT 

ingmen  to  come  in  the  busy  season  and  return  in  the 
slack  season.  This  had  a  very  serious  effect  upon  citizen 
ship  in  the  United  States.  Thousands  of  men,  leaving 
their  wives  and  children  behind  them,  came  with  no 
thought  of  giving  up  their  allegiance  to  their  former  coun 
tries  or  of  making  homes  in  the  United  States.  Their  sole 
interest  in  this  country  was  to  get  a  job  for  a  few  months 
or  a  few  years,  and  go  back  home  when  they  had  accumulated 
a  little  money.  Having  no  intention  of  settling  here  perma 
nently,  they  were  willing  to  endure  slums,  long  hours  of 
work,  and  other  conditions  bad  for  their  health  and  morals. 


IMMIGRATION  505 

Having  no  permanent  interest  in  this  country,  they  did  not 
care  whether  it  was  well  or  poorly  governed. 


III.   LATER  EFFORTS  TO  RESTRICT  IMMIGRATION 

Arguments  for  and  against  the  Restriction  of  Immigration.  — 
Native  Americans  early  protested  against  the  wide-open  door 
for  immigrants.  Some  of  the  objections  which  they  ad 
vanced  were  foolish  and  some  were  wise ;  some  were  narrow 
and  selfish ;  others  were  based,  not  on  ill  will  toward  the 
alien,  but  on  the  desire  to  make  America  a  united  nation, 
well  governed  and  prosperous. 

At  the  same  time  there  were  advocates  of  the  wide-open 
door  who  objected  to  interference  with  immigration.  Em 
ployers  insisted  that  the  supply  of  labor  should  be  large 
and  available  as  needed.  Those  who,  like  the  Jews,  had 
fled  from  persecution,  were  anxious  that  the  door  should  not 
be  closed  against  their  countrymen  yet  to  come.  Advocates 
of  freedom,  looking  upon  America  as  "  the  asylum  for  the 
oppressed  of  every  land,"  declared  that  it  would  be  giving 
up  our  ancient  principles  to  place  bars  in  the  way  of  the 
immigrant. 

Nevertheless  the  protest  against  unrestricted  immigra 
tion  steadily  grew.  Anxiety  about  the  matter  appeared 
before  the  Civil  War.  It  weakened  with  the  demand  of 
mill,  mine,  and  railroad  owners  for  labor.  In  a  few  years 
it  grew  stronger.  Native  American  workingrnen,  East  and 
West,  began  to  demand  protection  against  the  foreigners 
who  at  lower  wages  took  their  places  away  from  them. 
They  urged  that  it  was  selfish  and  un-American  to  enact 
tariffs  to  shield  American  mill-owners  against  European 
competition,  and  at  the  same  time  to  refuse  to  shield 
American  labor  against  low-paid  foreigners.  Other  citi 
zens  urged  that  the  number  of  immigrants  should  not  be 


506        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

too  large,  because  it  took  time  for  foreigners  to  learn  our 
language  and  to  know  enough  about  our  country  to  share 
wisely  in  its  government. 

Laws  Restricting  Immigration. -- When  the  Federal  Gov 
ernment  began  to  give  attention  to  the  matter,  the  Chinese 
were  considered  first.  By  a  law  of  1870  they  were  denied 
the  right  to  become  naturalized  American  citizens.  In 
1880,  a  treaty  was  made  with  China  under  which  Chinese 
laborers  could  be  excluded  from  the  country,  and  two  years 
later  the  first  Chinese  Exclusion  act  was  passed. 

In  1882  Congress  discussed  the  whole  question  of 
immigration  and  passed  a  law  whereby  convicts  (except 
political  refugees),  lunatics,  idiots,  and  persons  liable  to 
become  public  charges  were  excluded  from  the  country, 
and  the  owners  of  vessels  were  required  to  carry  back  at 
their  own  expense  such  persons. 

Other  laws  were  later  enacted  for  the  purpose  of  con 
trolling  immigration.  In  1888  importation  of  laborers 
under  contract  was  prohibited ;  that  is,  the  old  practice 
authorized  by  the  law  of  1864  was  forbidden.  This  made 
it  impossible  for  large  importers  of  labor  to  break  strikes 
and  reduce  wages  by  sending  agents  to  Europe  to  col 
lect  workers.  In  1891  persons  having  loathsome  or  conta 
gious  diseases  were  denied  the  right  of  admission  to  the 
country.  Later,  anarchists  were  excluded.  In  1907  an  ar 
rangement  was  made  with  Japan  for  excluding  Japanese 
laborers.  In  1913,  when  the  Department  of  Labor  was 
created  at  Washington,  the  supervision  of  immigration  and 
naturalization  and  the  enforcement  of  immigration  laws 
were  turned  over  to  it.  In  1917  Congress  enacted,  over 
President  Wilson's  veto,  a  law  imposing  an  educational  test, 
which  was  designed  to  keep  out  illiterates  and  to  reduce  the 
number  of  immigrants. 


IMMIGRATION  507 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.    How  large  would  the  population  of  the  United   States 
have  been  in   1900  if  no  immigrants  had   been   admitted  to  the 
country  after  the  Revolution  ?       2.   Chiefly  from  what  countries 
did  the  immigrants  come  before  the  Civil  War  ?      3.   In  what  way 
did    the    Homestead    Law    influence    immigrants  ?     What    other 
law  was   passed   that  encouraged    immigrants  to  seek    homes  in 
this  country  ?      4.   From  wThat  countries  did  the  immigrants  come 
in  largest  numbers  immediately  after  the  Civil  War  ? 

II.  i.  What    changes    in    immigration    began    about     1890? 

2.  Why  did  the  coming  of  large  numbers  of  immigrants  from  south 
ern  Europe  raise  problems  that  had  not  confronted  the  country 
when     the    immigrants    came    chiefly  from     northern     Europe  ? 

3.  Why  did  the  immigrants  after  1890  settle  chiefly  in  the  cities 
and  the  industrial  districts  ?       4.   How  and  why  did  the  steam 
ship  and  railroad  companies  encourage  immigration  ?       5.   What 
are  the  important  differences  between  immigrants  who  come  to 
make    permanent   homes    and    those   who   come   merely   to    earn 
money  and  then  return  to  their  native  countries  ? 

III.  i.  What  groups  of  people  protested  against  unrestricted 
immigration  ?     For  what  reasons  ?     Why  did  other  groups  wish 
to  continue  free   immigration  ?       2.  Why  were  the  first    restric 
tions  on   immigration   aimed    at  the   Chinese?        3.  What   other 
restrictions  were  made  later  ? 


PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Find  what  kinds  of  immigrants  have  come  to  your  locality 
in  recent  years,  whence  they  came,  and  in  what  types,  of  work 
they  are  chiefly  engaged. 

2.  The  text  states  that  the  law  which  requires  immigrants  to 
meet  an  educational  test  (that  is,  to  show  that  they  are  able  to 
read  at  least  their  own  language)  was  passed  by  Congress  over 
the  veto  of  President  Wilson.     Discuss   in  class  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  an  educational  test  for  immigrants. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
COMBINATIONS  OF  CAPITAL  AND  OP^  LABOR 

I.    COMPETITION  IN  BUSINESS  LEADS  TO  THE   FORMATION 

OF  "TRUSTS" 

The  Great  Industrial  Trusts. —  In  the  rush  to  develop  the 
country  in  every  direction,  competition  among  business  men 
became  so  keen  that  many  of  them  were  forced  into  bank 
ruptcy.  For  example,  there  were  several  hundred  refiners 
in  the  oil  business,  all  of  them  turning  out  oil  products  in 
feverish  haste.  In  time,  of  course,  the  market  was  clogged, 
prices  fell,  and  many  of  the  refiners  were  ruined.  The 
destructive  nature  of  this  conflict,  coupled  with  the  desire 
to  make  larger  profits  by  raising  prices  or  reducing  costs,  led 
business  men  to  form  agreements  or  combinations  known 
as  "  trusts."  The  term  was  applied  because  it  was  the 
practice  of  the  men  who  united  their  concerns  to  place  them 
in  the  hands  of  '"  trustees,"  chosen  by  the  stockholders, 
and  charged  with  the  management  of  the  entire  business. 

The  Standard  Oil  Interests.  —  As  early  as  1879,  oil  pro 
ducers  in  Cleveland,  Pittsburgh,  Philadelphia,  and  other 
places  began  to  agree  among  themselves  on  prices.  In 
1882,  under  the  leadership  of  John  D.  Rockefeller,  they 
formed  a  "  trust  "  which  is  known  as  the  Standard  Oil 
Company.  Six  years  after  its  formation  the  Company  was 
paying  to  a  small  group  of  holders  about  $20,000,000  annu 
ally,  in  dividends,  on  a  capital  of  $90,000,000. 


COMBINATIONS  OF  CAPITAL  AND  OF  LABOR       509 

Those  who  took  part  in  this  early  combination  soon  be 
gan  to  invest  in  other  concerns.  In  1879  one  of  them  became 
a  director  of  the  Valley  Railroad  ;  in  1882  another  was  elected 
a  director  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  Railroad  ; 
in  1887  a  third  became  connected  with  a  syndicate  which 
absorbed  the  Minnesota  Iron  Company;  and  about  the 
same  time  representatives  of  the  Oil  Trust  appeared  in 
the  Northern  Pacific,  the  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas,  and 
the  Ohio  River  railways.  The  same  thing  happened  in  the 
case  of  the  stockholders  of  other  companies,  until  scores  of 
business  concerns  were  brought  together  in  one  gigantic 
interest  of  which  the  Standard  Oil  Company  was  the  center. 

Other  Trusts.  --  Within  a  few  years  after  the  establishment 
of  the  Standard  Oil  Company,  combinations  were  formed  in 
cotton  oil,  linseed  oil,  lead,  sugar,  whiskey,  and  cordage;  and 
in  a  little  time  a  few  great  financiers  had  large  shares  of  stock 
in  the  companies  manufacturing  staples  like  iron  and 
woolen  goods.  Indeed,  by  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  cen 
tury  there  was  scarcely  an  industry  of  any  importance  which 
did  not  have  a  trust  possessing  enormous  capital.  For 
example,  the  Copper  Trust,  incorporated  in  New  Jersey 
in  1899,  had  a  capital  of  $175,000,000  within  five  years. 
The  United  States  Steel  Corporation,  founded  in  1901,  led 
them  all  with  its  capital  of  $1,400,000,000. 

Railroad  Combinations.  -  -  The' tendency  toward  the  union 
of  companies  appeared  also  in  the  railroad  business.  Com 
peting  lines  were  often  united  under  the  same  company  to 
control  freight  and  passenger  rates,  and  great  combinations 
were  formed  to  purchase  trunk  lines  through  from  the  East 
to  the  West  or  from  the  North  to  the  South. 

By  the  close  of  the  century  there  were  several  huge 
railroad  combinations  which  controlled  nearly  all  the 
important  long  lines  in  the  United  States.  These  were  the 
Boston  and  Maine  and  the  New  York,  New  Haven,  and  Hart- 


510        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

ford  in  New  England ;  the  New  York  Central  (Vanderbilt 
lines)  and  the  Pennsylvania  in  the  Middle  States,  running 
from  the  seaboard  to  Chicago  and  the  Mississippi;  the 
Gould  lines  running  from  Buffalo  through  Kansas  City  to 
Salt  Lake  and  the  Pacific  Coast ;  the  Morgan-Hill  lines  in 
the  South  and  in  the  far  Northwest ;  and  the  Harriman 
lines  stretching  from  the  middle  Mississippi  Valley  to  San 
Francisco,  Portland,  and  S.pokane,  and  from  New  Orleans 
to  San  Francisco. 

The  "Captains  of  Industry."  -Out  of  the  trusts  and 
combinations  great  fortunes  were  made.  Andrew  Carnegie, 
John  D.  Rockefeller,  the  Goulds  and  the  Vanderbilts,  to 
mention  only  a  few,  acquired  riches  such  as  had  not  been 
dreamed  of  before  in  the  history  of  the  world.  Through 
their  wealth  they  were  able  to  control  the  life  and  labor  of 
millions  of  men  and  women.  They  endowed  schools, 
founded  universities,  built  hospitals  and  libraries,  and  sup 
ported  charities. 

\ 
II.   THE  RESULTS  OF  COMBINATIONS  OF  CAPITAL 

The  "  Soulless  Corporation."  -  The  growth  of  large  com 
panies  seriously  altered  the  relation  of  employers  and  work 
men.  In  the  old  days  when  the  factory  was  small  and  was 
owned  by  one  man,  or  at  best  a  few  men  who  lived  near 
by,  there  was  usually  a  certain  personal  and  friendly  tie  be 
tween  the  employer  and  his  employees.  Sometimes  the 
master  actually  worked  in  the  factory  side  by  side  with 
his  helpers  and  knew  them  by  their  first  names.  As  the 
factories  grew  in  size  and  passed  into  the  ownership  of 
companies  —  the  members  of  which  often  lived  in  distant 
cities  or  even  foreign  countries  —  the  plants  were  managed 
by  overseers,  and  the  personal  relation  between  employer 
and  employee  was  broken.  People  came  to  speak  of 


COMBINATIONS   OF   CAPITAL  AND  OF  LABOR       511 

corporations  as  "  soulless/'  By  that  it  was  meant  that 
they  were  purely  business  enterprises,  and  that  the  owners 
could  not  be  reached  by  the  employees  struggling  for  better 
wages  or  shorter  hours. 

Protective  Organizations  of  Employees.  --  While  employers 
were  combining  their  industries  to  stop  destructive  compe 
tition,  workingmen  were  building  up  unions  to  prevent 
undercutting  in  wages.  During  the  war,  labor  was  scarce 
and  wages  high.  A  strong  movement  was  therefore  started 
to  organize  workingmen  for  the  purpose  of  upholding 
the  high  wage  scale.  The  Brotherhood  of  Locomotive 
Engineers  was  established  in  1863,  and  the  following  year 
unions  were  formed  among  cigar  makers,  bricklayers,  and 
masons.  By  1866  thirty  or  forty  different  trades  were 
formed  into  national  unions,  with  branches  all  over  the 
country.  In  1870  and  1871  national  labor-union  con 
ventions  were  held  arid  attempts  were  made  to  create  a 
strong  society  embracing  all  the  workingmen  and  women  of 
every  trade. 

The  "  Knights  of  Labor."  -  The  task  of  forming  the  great 
national  union  was  undertaken  by  "  The  Noble  Order  of 
Knights  of  Labor,"  founded  in  1869  by  a  group  of  Phila 
delphia  garment  workers  who  wanted  to  unite  all  wage- 
earners  in  one  body,  without  any  distinctions  of  sex, 
trade,  grade,  color,  or  nationality.  Within  fifteen  years, 
this  organization  had  over  1,000,000  members. 

The  demands  of  the  Knights  of  Labor  were  :  (i)  an  eight- 
hour  day  for  all  working  people,  (2)  laws  guaranteeing  them 
healthful  and  safe  conditions  in  factories  and  mines,  (3) 
weekly  payment  of  wages  in  money,  (4)  payment  of  damages 
by  employers  to  workers  injured  in  industry,  (5)  the  es 
tablishment  of  state  and  national  labor  bureaus,  and  other 
reforms.  The  Knights  of  Labor  protested  against  the 
practice  of  state  governments  in  hiring  out  prisoners  to 


512        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

manufacturers  and  thus  cutting  the  wages  of  honest  people. 
They  protested  also  against  employers  bringing  in  large  num 
bers  of  European  immigrants  under  contract  (see  page  498) 
in  order  to  reduce  home  wages.  The  motto  of  the  organiza 
tion  was  :  "  An  injury  to  one  is  the  concern  of  all." 

The  Knights  of  Labor  had  great  influence  on  the  working 
people  of  the  country.  Although  they  did  not  start  a  new 
political  party,  they  helped  to  secure  from  state  and  na 
tional  governments  several  reforms.  The  Knights  also  led 
in  several  successful  strikes  against  employers  to  increase 
wages ;  but  they  failed  in  a  number  of  them.  They  then 
began  to  quarrel  among  themselves,  and  finally  their  national 
union  went  to  pieces. 

The  American  Federation  of  Labor.  —  Meanwhile,  a  second 
national  labor  organization,  the  "  American  Federation  of 
Labor,"  was  growing  up.  It  was  started  in  1881,  with  the 
federation  of  unions  in  about  one  hundred  different  trades, 
and  five  years  later  took  the  name  it  now  bears.  The 
Federation,  unlike  the  Knights  of  Labor,  did  hot  attempt 
to  form  into  one  grand  union  all  sorts  and  conditions 
of  working  people.  It  began  with  the  separate  trades  to 
organize  men  and  women  into  district  "  locals,"  and  it  per 
mitted  the  members  of  each  trade  to  conduct'  their  own 
negotiations  with  their  employers.  The  Federation  inter 
vened  only  in  emergencies.  It  did  not  undertake  general 
strikes  of  all  working  people  in  order  to  help  those  of  a 
single  trade  or  locality. 

By  1917  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  had  2,359,812 
dues-paying  members.  It  had  accumulated  large  sums  of 
money.  Under  the  leadership  of  its  president,  Samuel 
Gompers,  it  won  much  power  over  wages  and  hours  of  labor 
in  the  industries  of  the  country. 

The  Federation  s  Influence  on  Politics.  —  Although  the 
American  Federation  of  Labor  did  not  organize  a  separate 


COMBINATIONS  OF  CAPITAL  AND  OF  LABOR        513 

political  party,  it  often  brought  influence  to  bear  upon  the 
existing  parties  and  compelled  them  to  enact  laws  favorable 
to  labor.  For  instance,  in  1908  and  1912,  Mr.  Gompers 
asked  the  Republican  and  Democratic  parties  to  support 
certain  laws  which  the  workers  demanded.  When  the 
former  party  refused,  and  the  latter  made  the  desired 
promises,  he  asked  the  members  of  the  American  Fed 
eration  to  vote  solidly  for  the  Democratic  candidate  for 
President.  Mr.  Gompers  boasted  that  eighty  per  cent  of 
the  voting  members  of  his  Federation  cast  their  ballots  for 
the  Democratic  candidate.  Whether  or  not  this  estimate 
is  accurate,  it  is  certain  that  after  the  election  of  Mr. 
Wilson  in  1912,  the  Democratic  party  passed  some  of  the 
laws  which  the  Federation  of  Labor  had  demanded.  Thus, 
by  threatening  to  use  the  labor  vote  for  or  agairist  one  or 
the  other  of  the  political  parties,  the  Federation  was  able  to 
secure  a  number  of  its  measures.  When  the  Department  of 
Labor  was  created  in  1913,  an  officer  of  the  Federation  was 
appointed  as  the  head  and  was  given  a  seat  in  the 
President's  cabinet. 

Employers*  Organizations  While  the  trade  unions  in 
creased  in  number  and  power,  the  employers  of  labor  were 
forming  organizations  for  the  purpose  of  resisting  the  de 
mands  of  labor.  As  early  as  1825  an  employers'  association 
was  formed  in  Boston,  pledged  to  "  drive  the  shipwrights, 
calkers,  and  gravers  to  submission  or  starvation."  In  1872 
more  than  four  hundred  employers  organized  a  national 
association  to  oppose  the  attempt  to  establish  a  ten-hour 
day.  After  that  time  many  other  employers'  associa 
tions  sprang  up.  In  1903  there  was  established  the  Citi 
zens'  Industrial  Association  of  America,  a  union  of  several 
national  associations.  Somewhat  later  the  National  Manu 
facturers'  Association  was  founded.  It  employed  agents 
to  block  the  efforts  of  working  people  to  secure  laws  in  their 


514         THE   HISTORY  OF   THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

own  interests,  whenever  such  laws  were  considered  injurious 
to  employers. 

III.    THE  GREAT  STRIKES 

Industrial  Disputes.  The  Strikes  of  lojj  and  1888.  —  As 
employers  and  employees  began  to  line  up  against  each 
other,  there  arose  many  a  costly  and  tragic  struggle.  In 
1877  an  appalling  railway  strike  on  the  Pennsylvania  and 
other  lines  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  millions  of  "dollars' 
worth  of  property,  including  the  railroad  station  at  Pitts 
burgh.  A  few  years  later  a  veritable  civil  war  broke  out 
at  the  Carnegie  iron  works  at  Homestead,  Pennsylvania. 
There  was  heavy  loss  of  life  on  both  sides,  many  of  the 
strikers  being  killed  by  Pinkerton  detectives  employed  by 
the  mill  owners.  In  1886  strikes  in  Chicago  manufactur 
ing  establishments  led  to  collisions  between  police  and 
workingmen,  and  ended  in  the  famous  Haymarket  riot  in 
which  several  policemen  were  killed  by  bombs.  In  the  Far 
West,  particularly  in  Colorado,  Idaho,  and  Montana,  miners 
and  their  employers  were  almost  constantly  engaged  in  com 
bats  over  hours  and  wages,  which  were  frequently  accom 
panied  by  dynamite  outrages,  murders,  and  general  lawless 
ness  on  the  part  of  both  contestants. 

The  Strike  of  1894.  — In  l$94-  there  occurred  the  most 
alarming  railway  strike  of  the  period.  The  employees  of  the 
Pullman  Car  Company  at  Chicago  struck,  and  the  American 
Railway  Union,  in  order  to  help  them,  called  a  "  sympa 
thetic  strike."  In  this  dispute  property  was  destroyed.  The 
leader  of  the  railway  men,  Eugene  V.  Debs,  was  imprisoned 
for  disobeying  a  court  injunction  commanding  workingmen 
not  to  interfere  with  the  business  of  the  companies.  Finally, 
against  the  protests  of  the  governor  of  Illinois,  President 
Cleveland  dispatched  federal  troops  'to  the  scene  of  trouble 
and  the  strike  was  broken. 


COMBINATIONS   OF  CAPITAL  AND  OF   LABOR 


515 


The  Public  and  the  Government  Involved.  —  For  a  long 
time,  it  was  generally  maintained  that  such  conflicts  were 
mere  incidents  in  industry  and  concerned  only  employers 
and  employees.  Gradually  this  view  disappeared.  Strikes 


THE  ARBITRATION  COMMISSION  APPOINTED  BY  PRESIDENT  ROOSKVKLT  TO  SETTLE 

THE  ANTHRACITE  COAL  STRIKE  OF  1902 

From  left  to  right:  Colonel  Carroll  D.  Wright,  Statistician;  Mr.  Thomas  H. 
Watkins,  Coal  Operator;  General  John  M.  Wilson,  U.  S.  A. ;  U.  S.  Senator  George 
Gray  of  Delaware ;  Mr.  Edward  Parker,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey ;  Mr.  Edward  E. 
Clark,  Chief  of  the  Order  of  Railway  Conductors;  Most  Rev.  John  Lancaster 
Spalding,  Bishop  of  Peoria. 

clearly  involved  the  public  at  large  as  well  as  the  actual 
combatants.  When  railways  were  tied  up  and  mines  closed, 
the  public  suffered.  When  disorders  occurred,  the  lives  and 
property  of  outside  parties  were  endangered. 

Then,  too,  there  were  many  questions  involving  the  govern 
ment,  federal  and  state,  directly.  How  far  should  the  courts 
be  permitted  to  go  in  ordering  employees  to  do  this  or  abstain 
from  doing  that  in  connection  with  strikes  ?  Under  what 


516        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

conditions  should  the  militia  or  federal  troops  be  called 
out,  and  what  should  they  be  permitted  to  do  when  called 
out  ?  To  what  extent  should  the  police  be  allowed  to  inter 
fere  with  meetings  held  to  help  strikers  ?  What  should 
strikers  be  allowed  to  do  to  persuade  other  workers  not  to 
take  their  jobs  ?  Should  labor  unions  be  given  the  right  to 
exclude  non-union  men  from  any  industry  and  thus  main 
tain  a  "  closed  shop  "  ? 

The  Demand  from  the  Public  for  an  Adjustment  of  Labor 
Disputes.  —  Many  proposals  were  advanced  with  a  view  to 
solving  the  problem  of  strikes  and  labor  disputes.  In  1900 
there  was  formed  the  American  Civic  Federation  to  bring 
together  employers,  professional  people,  philanthropists, 
and  representatives  of  trade  unions.  The  Federation  recog 
nized  the  right  of  working  people  to  form  unions  and  sought 
to  make  the  disputes  arising  between  employers  and  em 
ployees  a  subject  for  common  consideration.  Many  citizens 
who  had  formerly  denounced  trade  unions  came  to  see  in 
them  an  inevitable  product  of  industrial  progress.  Mem 
bers  of  all  political  parties  were  also  forced  to  listen  to  their 
demands.  Moreover  it  became  a  matter  of  grave  public  con 
cern  whether  any  employers  in  the  United  States  should 
be  allowed  to  pay  wages  so  low  that  their  employees  could 
not  live  decently  and  become  respectable  American  citizens. 
Thus  the  public  at  large  began  to  be  deeply  interested  in  the 
conflict  between  employers  and  employees. 

Roosevelt's  Policy.  --  Public  interest  in  labor  disputes 
became  especially  evident  in  the  anthracite  coal  strike  of 
1902.  The  employers  refused  to  listen  to  the  demands  of 
the  miners,  and  as  winter  came  on  the  country  was  con 
fronted  by  a  coal  famine.  As  President  Roosevelt  said : 

i 

The  big  coal  operators  had  banded  together  and  positively 
refused  to  take  any  steps  looking  toward  an  accommodation  [with 
their  employees].  They  knew  that  the  suffering  among  the  miners 


COMBINATIONS  OF   CAPITAL  AND  OF  LABOR       517 

was  great ;  they  were  confident  that  if  order  were  kept  and  nothing 
further  was  done  by  the  government  they  would  win,  and  they 
refused  to  consider  that  the  public  had  any  rights  in  the  matter. 
.  .  .  No  man  and  no  group  of  men  can  so  exercise  their  rights 
as  to  deprive  the  nation  of  the  things  which  are  necessary  and 
vital  to  the  common  life.  A  strike  which  ties  up  the  coal  supplies 
of  a  whole  section  is  a  strike  invested  with  a  public  interest. 

President  Roosevelt  was  ready  to  use  the  soldiers  to  take 
possession  of  the  mines  and  have  the  government  run  them, 
in  order  to  supply  the  country  with  coal.  He  appointed 
a  commission  to  consider  the  demands  of  the  miners  and  the 
claims  of  the  employers.  As  a  result,  a  settlement  of  the 
strike  was  reached.  This  affair  may  be  said  to  mark  a  turn 
in  the  course  of  labor  disputes,  because  the  general  public 
at  last  realized  that  it  had  an  interest. in,  and  a  certain 
responsibility  for,  a  struggle  between  employers  and  em 
ployees.  The  public  slowly  learned  that  its  responsibility 
involved  supporting  the  demand  for  wholesome  labor  con 
ditions. 

IV.   THE  RISE  OF  SOCIALISM 

Many  of  the  leaders  in  the  labor  movements  became 
convinced  that  strikes,  even  when  successful  in  raising  wages 
or  reducing  hours  of  work,  would  not  remove  all  the 
poverty  and  misery  which  accompanied  the  growth  of, in 
dustry.  They,  therefore,  urged  the  formation  of  a  politi 
cal  party  which  would  bring  about  radical  legislation  in 
the  interest  of  labor.  As  early  as  1872  a  party  known  as 
Labor  Reformers  held  a  convention  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  and 
nominated  a  candidate  for  President. 

The  Rise  of  the  Socialists. — Two  decades  later  there  ap 
peared  in  the  country  a  socialistic  party  which  appealed 
particularly  to  working  people.  While  there  was  much  dif 
ference  of  opinion  among  Socialists  as  to  their  plans,  there 


51 8        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

were  certain  general  ideas  running  through  their  writings : 
(i)  Modern  industry  necessarily  creates  a  division  in  the 
country  into  capitalists  on  the  one  hand,  who  own  the  fac 
tories,  mines,  and  railways ;  and  on  the  other  hand  a  great 
mass  of  people,  owning  no  tools,  and  solely  dependent  upon 
their  labor  for  livelihood.  (2)  A  struggle  between  these  two 
classes  is  inevitable,  because  each  seeks  to  secure  all  that  it 
can  from  the  annual  output  of  wealth.  (3)  Out  of  this  con 
test  the  owners  of  capital  gain  \vealth,  luxury,  and  safety ; 
and  the  workers,  poverty,  slums,  hazard,  and  misery. 

The  Socialists  all  agreed  that  the  only  solution  of  the 
problem  was  for  the  government  to  take  possession  of  the 
natural  resources  and  industries,  forests,  mines,  railways, 
and  factories,  from  which  the  rich  were  able  to  make  such 
large  fortunes,  and  to  manage  these  great  enterprises  for  the 
benefit  of  all.  This  meant  a  drastic  interference  with  all 
private  business  and  government  ownership  on  a  large 
scale.  The  Socialists  did  not  propose,  as  persons  some 
times  imagined,  to  divide  up  all  property  equally  among  the 
people.  As  an  example  of  their  theory  they  cited  the  post- 
office,  which  is  owned  by  the  government  and  in  the  use 
of  which  all  share  alike.  It  is  not  "  divided  up.'/ 

Opposition  to  Socialist  Theories.  -  -  The  Socialists  were 
strongly  opposed  by  the  other  political  parties.,  although 
many  of  the  evils  which  they  pointed  out  were  admitted. 
Those  who  attacked  Socialism  said  that  it  would  be  im 
possible  for  the  government  to  own  and  manage  the  in 
dustries  and  employ  so  many  millions  of  working  people ; 
that  if  everybody  were  turned  into  a  government  em 
ployee  and  deprived  of  the  right  to  make  personal  profits, 
no  one  would  be  interested  in  inventing  new  machinery  or 
establishing  new  enterprises. 

It  was  pointed  out  also  that  it  would  be  difficult  for  the 
government  to  distribute  the  annual  national  income,  in  a 


COMBINATIONS  OF  CAPITAL  AND  OF  LABOR        519 

fair  and  satisfactory  manner,  among  those  who  labored  at 
the  various  industries  and  occupations.  If  all  were  to  share 
equally  —  the  able  and  the  stupid,  the  idle  and  the  indus 
trious  —  what  incentive  would  there  be  for  any  individual 
to  exercise  his  skill  and  energy  ?  On  the  other  hand,  if 
incomes  were  to  be  unequal,  according  to  what  rules  should 
the  shares  be  apportioned  ?  Many  opponents  of  Socialism 
said  that  the  Socialist  notion,  that  all  people  could  dwell 
together  in  harmony  and  cooperation,  was  contrary  to  the 
laws  of  nature,  which  decreed  a  constant  struggle  among 
mankind  in  which  the  weak  were  bound  to  lose  and  the  strong 
destined  to  win. 

The  Growth  of  the  Socialist  Party. --There  were  many 
Socialists  in  the  country  before  1860,  particularly  among 
the  German  immigrants  who  came  over  in  1848.  It  was 
not  until  1892  that  a  Socialist  Labor  party  was  formed  and 
a  candidate  nominated  for  President.  This  party,  however, 
never  polled  as  high  as  a  hundred  thousand  votes.  It 
had  been  in  existence  only  eight  years  when  a  second 
party,  known  as  the  Socialist  party,  was  established.  The 
new  party  in  1900  nominated  for  its  candidate  Eugene 
V.  Debs,  the  leader  of  the  great  railway  strike  of  1894. 
By  1912  the  Socialist  popular  vote  had  reached  898,000; 
but  in  1916  it  fell  about  twenty  per  cent.  The  refusal  of 
the  party,  1917,  to  support  our  war  on  Germany  led  many 
members  to  resign  and  discredited  Socialist  doctrines  unre 
lated  to  the  war. 

New  Aspects  of  the  Capital  and  Labor  Problem.  -  -  The 
twentieth  century  opened  with  the  extension  of  conflicts 
between  employers  and  employees  into  the  field  of  govern 
ment  and  politics.  Both  sides  were  powerfully  organized. 
It  is  true  that  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  working  people 
were  actually  members  of  trade  unions  -  fewer  than  one 
tenth  —  and  hundreds  of  small  manufacturers  remained 


520        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

outside  of  employers'  associations ;  but  in  nearly  all  the 
great  staple  industries  and  the  railways,  strong  organi 
zations  of  labor  and  capital  were  in  command.  More 
and  more  their  contests  over  wages  and  hours  involved 
governmental  action.  All  kinds  of  laws  for  the  benefit  and 
protection  of  both  sides  were  proposed  —  the  just  and 
the  unjust,  the  wise  and  the  foolish.  Political  parties  were 
urged  to  indorse  them.  State  legislatures  and  Congress 
were  besieged  by  agents  of  trade  unions  arid  em 
ployers  supporting  or  opposing  the  various  measures.  The 
citizens  at  large  were  inevitably  drawn  into  the  controversies. 
In  spite  of  the  counsels  of  those  who  declared  that  indus 
try  was  none  of  the  government's  concern,  the  voters  at 
the  polls  were  called  upon  to  decide  a  multitude  of  matters 
involving  labor  and  capital. 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

'I.  I.  What  led  to  the  combination  of  business  concerns? 
How  did  these  combinations  come  to  be  known  as  "trusts"  ? 
2.  Why  did  these  trusts,  once  established,  tend  to  reach  out  and 
gather  up  other  lines  of  business  ?  In  what  kinds  of  business 
other  than  oil  production  did  the  Standard  Oil  Company  become 
interested  ?  3.  Name  some  of  the  other  great  trusts.  4.  Name 
some  of  the  "captains  of  industry." 

II.  I.  Why  did  the  growth  of  trusts  lead  to  labor  troubles? 
What  is  meant  by  a  "soulless  corporation"?       2.  What  did  the 
workingmen  do  to  protect  their  rights  ?     What  did  the  Knights 
of  Labor    hope   to    accomplish?        3.  How    does    the   American 
Federation   of  Labor  differ  from   the  older   Knights  of  Labor  ? 
Who  is  the  leader  of  the  Federation  of  Labor  ?     What  important 
things  has  the  Federation  accomplished  ?       4.  How  did  the  em 
ployers  try  to  block  the  efforts  of  the  workers  ? 

III.  i.  What  is  meant  by  a  "strike"?     Where  did  some  of 
the  early  strikes  occur  ?      2.  Why  did  the  public  claim  a  right  to 
interfere  in  the  conflict  between  capital  and  labor?       3.  What 


COMBINATIONS  OF. CAPITAL  AND  OF  LABOR        521 

was    President    Roosevelt's    policy    regarding    the   rights   of  the 
public  in  this  conflict  ? 

IV.  i.  What  is  meant  by  "government  ownership"  ?  What 
business  enterprises  does  the  government  now  control  ?  2.  What 
is  the  difference  between  government  ownership  and  "dividing 
up"  the  wealth  of  the  country  equally  among  all  of  the  people? 
3.  What  does  the  Socialist  party  hold  regarding  government 
ownership  ? 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Find    out    about  the    development    of  the    oil    industry,  - 
where  petroleum  is  found,  how  it  is  brought  out  of  the   ground, 
taken  to  the    refineries,   and  made  into  useful  products.      Make 
a  list  of  the  principal   products.     Give  as  many  reasons  as  you 
can  explaining  why  the  oil  industry  was  one  of  the  first  to  be  or 
ganized  into  a  "trust." 

Your  geographies  (look  up  the  subject  in  the  index)  will  give 
you  much  information  about  petroleum  and  its  products.  See 
also  Mowry's  "American  Inventors  and  Inventions,"  pp.  77-80. 

2.  Look   up   the   story   of  one   of  the   great   railroad   systems. 
Discuss  in  class  the  advantages  and  dangers  of  combining  short 
railroad  lines  into  large  systems. 

Brigham's  "From  Trail  to  Railway"  has  interesting  chapters 
on  the  New  York  Central  (ch.  v),  the  Pennsylvania  (ch.  vii),  and 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  (ch.  ix). 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

PARTIES  AND   POLITICAL  ISSUES 
I.   THE  REPUBLICAN  AND  DEMOCRATIC  ADMINISTRATIONS 

Political  Echoes  of  the  Civil  War.  --  For  a  long  time 
after  the  Civil  War,  the  politicians  discussed  principally 
"  the  Confederacy  "  and  "  the  Rebellion."  War  talk  was 
called  "waving  the  bloody  shirt,"  and  as  the  leaders  in 
politics  devoted  much  time  to  it,  it  was  difficult  for  the 
voters  to  think  of  anything  else  as  more  important. 

The  Republican  Party  in  Power.  --  With  Southern  leader 
ship  broken  and  the  Democratic  party  accused  of  having 
sympathized  with  secession,  the  Republicans  had  many  ad 
vantages.  They  were  able  to  carry  every  presidential  elec 
tion,  except  two,  between  1860  and  1912.  Shortly  after 
the  war  they  selected  as  their  candidate  General  Grant, 
who  was  regarded  as  a  great  hero  and,  next  to  Lincoln, 
the  savior  of  the  Union.  They  elected  him  President  in 
1868;  in  1872  reflected  him,  the  Democrats  having  at 
tempted  a  stroke  in  choosing  as  their  candidate  Horace 
Greeley,  the  famous  Republican  editor  of  the  New  York 
Tribune. 

The  Hayes-Tilden  Campaign.  —  In  the  midst  of  defeat, 
however,  the  Democrats  never  gave  up  hope.  They  made 
such  a  vigorous  fight  in  1872  that  they  secured  a  majority 
in  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  in  the  presidential 
campaign  of  1876  they  thought  that  they  had  carried 
the  day.  Indeed,  the  result  of  the  election  was  very  un- 

522 


PARTIES   AND   POLITICAL   ISSUES  523 

certain.  Both  parties  claimed  the  victory,  and  the  dispute 
grew  so  serious  that  Congress,  to  settle  the  quarrel,  ap 
pointed  a  commission  of  fifteen  members  to  examine  the 
election  returns.  On  this  commission,  the  Republicans 
had  a  majority  who  voted  solidly  on  important  points  in 
favor  of  the  Republican  candidate,  Rutherford  B.  Hayes, 
of  Ohio,  thus  giving  him  the  victory  over  Samuel  J.  Tilden, 
the  Democratic  candidate  from  New  York. 

Garfield  Elected  and  Assassinated.  —  Naturally  the  Dem 
ocrats  were  deeply  angered  with  the  decision,  but  they 
accepted  it,  hoping  that  the  country  would  rebuke 
their  opponents  in  the  next  campaign.  In  this,  however, 
they  were  disappointed,  because  the  Republicans  in  1880 
elected  James  A.  Garfield  bv  a  safe  majority  over  the 
Democratic  candidate,  General  Hancock.  President  Gar- 
field  had  hardly  taken  office  before 
he  was  shot  by  a  disappointed 
office-seeker ;  he  died  on  Septem 
ber  19,  1881. 

Cleveland  Brings  the  Democrats 
into  Power  (1885).  —  Garfield's 
successor,  the  Vice  President, 
Chester  A.  Arthur,  was  not  able  to 
win  the  united  support  of  his  own 
party,  and  in  1884  the  Republicans 

brushed     him     aside,     selecting    as  GROVER  CLEVELAND 

their  candidate  James  G.  Blaine  of 

Maine.  The  Democrats  savagely  attacked  Blaine  and 
won  a  victory  for  their  leader,  Grover  Cleveland,  of  New 
York,  the  first  Democratic  President  since  Buchanan's  day. 
The  triumph  was  a  narrow  one,  however,  and  due  not  so 
much  to  the  popularity  of  Cleveland  as  to  a  division  in 
Republican  ranks.  Indeed,  several  prominent  Republicans 
openly  went  over  to  the  Democrats.  On  account  of  their 


524        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

desertion  they  were  called  "  mugwumps  "  -  from  an  Indian 
term  meaning  "  big  chief."  It  was  alleged  that  the  mug 
wumps  felt  themselves  above  the  ordinary  man  who  voted 
regularly  with  his  party. 

Cleveland  Defeated  by  Harrison  (1888)  but  Reflected  in 
1892.  — -The  Democrats,  having  carried  the  country  once 
with  Cleveland  as  their  candidate,  put  him  forward  in  1888 
and  again  in  1892.  In  the  former  year  he  was  defeated  by 
Benjamin  Harrison,  of  Indiana,  the  Republican  candidate. 
In  1892  he  was  again  elected  President,  over  Harrison,  by  a 
very  substantial  majority. 

The  Return  of  the  Republicans.  McKinley,  Roosevelt, 
Taft. — This  proved  to  be  the  last  Democratic  victory  for 
twenty  years.  In  the  next  campaign,  1896,  William  Mc 
Kinley,  of  Ohio,  was  victorious  over  the  Democratic  candi 
date,  William  Jennings  Bryan,  of  Nebraska,  and  the  Re 
publicans  were  returned  to  power  on  March  4,  1897.  They 
retained  the  presidency  through  the  administrations  of 
McKinley,  Roosevelt,  and  Taft,  until  the  inauguration  of 
Wilson  in  1913. 


II.   THE  TARIFF  AND  THE  INCOME  TAX 

The  Tariff  Issue  since  the  Civil  War.  The  Protective 
Tariff.  —  During  all  these  administrations,  Republican  and 
Democratic  alike,  certain  questions,  or  "issues  "  as  they  are 
called,  stood  foremost  in  the  minds  of  the  voters.  The  first 
of  these  was  the  tariff  (p.  247).  Just  before  the  Civil  War, 
the  Democrats  had  succeeded  in  reducing  the  protective 
tariff  very  materially,  and  the  Republicans,  in  1860,  had 
taken  up  the  challenge  by  declaring  in  favor  of  protection. 
During  the  war  heavy  duties  were  levied  upon  imports  for 
the  sake  of  raising  money  to  meet  military  expenses.  After 
the  war  the  Republicans  kept  many  of  these  duties,  on  the 


PARTIES  AND  POLITICAL  ISSUES  525 

ground  that  they  protected  the  manufacturing  industries 
of  the  country. 

The  question  was  discussed  more  or  less  in  every  campaign 
between  1860  and  1916,  and  it  became  what  the  politicians 
called  a  "burning  issue"  in  1888,  1892,  and  1908.  Presi 
dent  Cleveland  in  a  message  to  Congress  in  December, 
1887,  vigorously  attacked  the  tariff.  He  denounced  it  as  a 
"  vicious  and  illegal  and  inequitable  "  system  of  taxation. 
In  1908  Mr.  Bryan  led  in  another  spirited  attack  upon  it* 
The  Democratic  platform  declared  in  favor  of  the  im 
mediate  reduction  of  import  duties,  particularly  on  the  ne 
cessities  of  life  and  articles  made  in  the  United  States  by 
the  great  trusts. 

The  Various  Tariff  Bills.  --In  spite  of  all  the  agitation 
about  the  tariff,  there  were  only  six  revisions  of  the  customs 
duties  between  General  Grant's  second  inauguration  in 
1873  and  the  close  of  President  Wilson's  first  administra 
tion  in  1917.  These  revisions  were  as  follows:  in  1883, 
under  a  Republican,  President  Arthur;  in  1890,  when  Mc- 
Kinley,  then  a  member  of  Congress  from  Ohio,  introduced  a 
very  high  protective  measure  which  bears  his  name  ;  in  1894, 
during  President  Cleveland's  administration,  when  a  slight 
reduction  was  made  by  the  Wilson-Gorman  Act  in  the  duties 
on  several  important  articles;  in  1897,  when  the  Dingley 
Tariff  Act,  passed  by  the  Republicans,  placed  the  duties  in 
general  at  the  highest  point  since  the  Civil  War;  in  1909, 
when  the  Republicans,  in  the  Payne-Aldrich  bill,  made  a 
general  revision  without  material  reductions ;  and,  finally, 
in  1913,  when  the  Democrats,  under  President  Wilson's 
leadership,  reduced  the  taxes  on  a  large  number  of  imports 
without,  by  any  means,  placing  the  tariff  on  a  purely 
"  revenue  basis." 

The  Agitation  for  an  Income  Tax.  —  Closely  connected 
with  the  problem  of  the  tariff  was  the  matter  of  the  income 


526        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

tax  —  a  tax  taking  a  percentage  of  the  income  received  by 
all  persons,  excepting  those  whose  incomes  were  below  a  cer 
tain  amount.  During  the  Civil  War  the  government  had 
laid  a  tax  upon  incomes  temporarily.  Later,  as  the 
Democrats  began  to  urge  tariff  revision,  they  declared  that 
when  duties  were  taken  off  the  imports  into  the  United 
States  the  loss  of  revenues  should  be  made  up  by  taxes 
on  incomes.  Some  of  them  said  that  customs,  duties  on 
sugar,  coffee,  tea,  and  the  like  were  taxes  upon  poor  people, 
based  on  the  amount  of  goods  consumed,  not  on  incomes  or 
wages-  "  ability  to  pay."  They  urged,  therefore,  that  a 
part  of  the  federal  revenue  should  be  derived  from  a  direct 
tax  on  the  well-to-do. 

The  Income  Tax  Declared  Unconstitutional.  —  Accord 
ingly  when  the  Democrats  revised  the  tariff,  in  1894,  they 
provided  for  a  tax  on  every  person  having  an  income  of  more 
than  $4000  a  year.  The  next  year,  however,  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States  declared  the  law  to  be  null 
and  void  as  violating  the  Constitution  —  much  to  the 
anger  of  the  friends  of  the  measure.  In  1896  the  Demo 
crats  put  in  their  platform  a  plank  favoring  a.  tax  on  in 
comes,  and  their  leaders  never  ceased  to  advocate  it. 

The  Constitution  Amended  to  Permit  an  Income  Tax.  — 
Many  Republicans  also  agreed  that  an  income  tax  was 
just  and  desirable,  and  President  Roosevelt,  in  one  of  his 
messages,  expressed  himself  in  favor  of  it.  In  1909,  while 
the  Republicans  were  in  power,  Congress  passed  the  Six 
teenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  authorizing  Congress  to  lay  and  collect  income 
taxes.  This  amendment  was  duly  ratified  by  a  sufficient 
number  of  state  legislatures  and  went  into  effe.ct  in  1913. 
The  Democrats,  once  more  in  power,  immediately  took  ad 
vantage  of  the  new  amendment.  In  that  very  year,  at  the 
time  of  revising  the  tariff,  Congress  laid  an  inco'me  tax. 


PARTIES  AND   POLITICAL   ISSUES  527 

The  Tariff  Still  an  Issue.  —  As  a  result  of  all  this 
agitation  and  legislation  it  could  hardly  be  said  that 
anything  was  definitely  settled  with  regard  to  the  tariff. 
The  Democrats,  while  severely  criticizing  the  protective 
system,  were  by  no  means  agreed  on  abolishing  all  pro 
tection  for  American  manufacturers  and  producers.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Republicans,  while  in  general  favoring 
high  tariff,  often  disagreed  among  themselves  as  to  what 
industries  should  receive  help. 

The  Tariff  Commission.  —  On  account  of  this  difference 
of  opinion  within  as  well  as  between  the  two  parties,  a 
tariff  commission,  composed  of  a  few  special  students  of 
the  subject,  was  established  under  Taft's  administration. 
It  was  instructed  to  find  out  just  how  far  American  goods 
should  be  protected  against  foreign  competition  in  order  to 
permit  manufacturers  to  make  only  "  fair  "  profits.  Under 
President  Wilson  a  new  commission  was  established  in 
1916.  Thus  it  appeared  that  no  political  party  favored 
the  reduction  of  the  tariff  to  such  a  point  as  to  afford  no 
aid  at  all  to  American  manufacturers ;  namely,  absolute 
free  trade. 

III.   THE  CURRENCY  PROBLEM 

The  Redemption  of  the  " Greenbacks."  -Another  public 
issue  which  occupied  the  attention  of  voters  Was  the  money 
problem.  During  the  Civil  War  the  government  had 
issued  many  million  dollars  in  paper  money,  known  as 
"  legal  tender "  or  "  greenbacks."  This  money,  which 
was  used  to  pay  the  soldiers  and  was  received  by  the  gov 
ernment  for  taxes  and  other  purposes,  was  not  redeemable 
in  gold  or  silver;  that  is,  the  holder  of  a  greenback  dollar 
could  not  go  to  the  United  States  Treasury  and  get  a  gold 
or  silver  dollar  in  return  for  it.  As  a  result,  this  money 
declined  in  value  until  a  greenback  dollar  was  worth  only 


528        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

sixty  or  seventy  cents  in  gold  or  silver.  Some  of  the  lead 
ing  men  in  the  country  favored  the  withdrawal  of  paper 
money  altogether ;  others  advocated  continuing  it  in  circu 
lation  ;  and  still  others  held  that  it  should  be  placed  on  a 
specie  basis,  whereby  anybody  who  had  a  paper  dollar 
could  secure  a  gold  dollar  in  exchange  for  it.  In  1879 
the  greenbacks  were  made  redeemable  in  coin. 

The  Problem  of  Silver  Money.  Demonetization. — A  second 
phase  of  the  money  problem  was  the  coinage  itself. 
The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  gave  Congress  the 
power  to  coin  money,  and  forbade  the  states  to  make  any 
thing  but  gold  or  silver  coin  the  lawful  money  in  the  pay 
ment  of  debts.  In  1792  the  government  began  to  coin 
these  two  metals  at  the  ratio  of  15  to  i;  that  is,  on  the 
theory  that  fifteen  ounces  of  silver  were  worth  one  ounce 
of  gold  on  the  market.  Later  the  ratio  was  changed  to 
1 6  to  i.  Silver  came  to  be  worth  more  than  this  price, 
however,  in  the  outside  market  in  relation  to  gold ;  and  as 
a  result  silver  dollars  almost  dropped  out  of  circulation.  In 
1873  Congress  ceased  making  them,  or  demonetized  them. 

The  Demand  for  Remonetization.  --  It  happened  about 
this  time  that  the  price  of  silver  began  to  decline  steadily. 
Rich  deposits  were  discovered  in  the  western  states  and 
in  a  few  years  it  took  twenty-two  ounces  of  silver  to  buy 
one  ounce  of  gold  on  the  market.  The  owners  of  silver 
mines,  finding  the  price  of  their  product  falling,  demanded 
that  the  government  should  restore  the  silver  dollar,  re- 
monetize  it,  by  coining  both  gold  and  silver  at  the  old  ratio 
of  16  to  i.  The  advocates  of  the  gold  standard  said  that 
silver  had  fallen  in  market  price  so  that  it  was  impossible 
to  coin  it  on  the  old  plan.  The  advocates  of  silver  replied 
that  silver  had  not  fallen,  but  that  gold  had  gone  up  be 
cause  the  government  had  given  it  a  monopoly  and  limited 
the  market  for  silver. 


PARTIES   AND   POLITICAL   ISSUES  529 

The  Controversy  over  the  Silver  Question.  -  -  The  country 
at  large  was  sharply  divided  over  this  question.  Quite 
commonly,  the  farmers  favored  the  free  coinage  of  silver 
at  the  old  ratio  because  they  thought  it  would  put  more 
money  into  circulation  and  raise  the  selling  price  of  farm 
products.  On  the  other  hand,  the  gold  standard  was  fa 
vored  largely  by  people  who  had  money  invested  in  busi 
ness  or  in  loans. 

The  money  lender  said  : 

If  you  increase  the  amount  of  money  by  coining  silver  dollars 
you  really  take  money  away  from  me.  For  example,  I  lent 
money  at  a  time  when  an  ounce  of  gold  was  wTorth  seventeen 
or  eighteen  times  an  ounce  of  silver,  and  now  you  propose  that  I 
should  be  repaid  in  silver  dollars  worth  much  less  than  the  original 
amount  which  I  lent;  that  is,  in  money  with  less  purchasing 
power. 

The  farmer,  on  his  part,  replied  : 

When  I  borrowed  a  thousand  dollars  on  my  farm,  wheat  was 
worth  two  dollars  a  bushel  and  I  could  pay  the  mortgage  off  with 
five  hundred  bushels;  but  now  the  price  of  wheat  has  fallen  to  one 
dollar,  and,  as  a  result,  although  the  amount  I  owe  is  still  one 
thousand  dollars,  it  is  two  thousand  dollars  measured  in  terms  of 
my  labor  —  the  wheat  which  I  have  produced. 

The  "  Greenback  "  and  "  Populist  "  Parties.  —  Many 
farmers  and  those  who  sympathized  with  them  decided  to 
go  into  politics  and  force  Congress  to  pass  laws  increasing 
the  amount  of  money  in  circulation.  In  the  late  seventies 
they  organized  a  short-lived  party  of  their  own  known  as 
the  "  Greenback  party"  which  favored  continuing  the  issue 
of  paper  money,  "greenbacks."  In  1892  they  established 
the  Populist  party  which  declared  for  free  silver.  In  that 
year  their  candidate  for  President  polled  more  than  a  million 
votes. 


530        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

The  McKinley-Bryan  Campaign  of  1896.  Bimetallism.  — - 
This  vote  disturbed  the  Republican  and  Democratic  parties, 
for  each  was  afraid  that  it  could  not  win  without  the  support 
of  the  discontented  farmers.  Many  prominent  Republicans 
believed  in  the  free  coinage  of  silver,  or  "  bimetallism  "  as  it 

was  called  ;  but  most  of  the  free- 
silver  advocates  were  Democrats. 
In  1896  the  free-silver  men  were 
so  numerous  that  they  captured 
the  Democratic  party  at  the 
national  convention  at  Chicago  and 
nominated  a  young  and  courageous 
advocate  of  free  silver,  William 
Jennings  Bryan,  of  Nebraska.  The 
Republicans  came  out  in  favor 
of  the  gold  standard.  Then  fol- 

WlLLIAM    McKlNLEY  . 

lowed    one   or  the  hottest   political 

campaigns  in  the  history  of  the  country.  There  had  been 
nothing  like  it,  except  in  1800,  1828,  and  1860.  The  Re 
publicans,  with  William  McKinley  as  their  candidate,  were 
victorious.  Four  years  later  they  passed  a  law  making  gold 
the  standard  for  the  whole  monetary  system  of  the  United 
States. 

The  "  Federal  Reserve"  Banks.  --  Before  many  years  had 
elapsed  "  the  currency  question  "  came  up  again  in  a  new 
form.  The  men  who  had  previously  advocated  free  silver 
held  to  their  old  contention  (i)  that  the  money  of  the 
country  was  too  largely  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  east 
ern  capitalists,  who  could  exact  any  rate  of  interest  they 
pleased  ;  (2)  that  there  was  not  enough  money  in  circula 
tion  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  farmers  and  small  business 
men ;  and  (3)  that  power  over  the  whole  monetary  system 
was  in  the  hands  of  private  persons  rather  than  of  the  gov 
ernment. 


PARTIES   AND   POLITICAL   ISSUES 


Many  leaders  in  both  parties  were  dissatisfied  with  the 
system  and  demanded  currency  reform.  In  response  to 
this  demand,  Congress  in  1913  passed  a  new  banking  law. 
Under  this  law  the  country  was  laid  out  into  twelve  great 
districts.  In  each  district  many  banks  were  transformed 
into  federal  banks  and  one  was  selected  as  a  Federal  Reserve 
Bank.  The  control  over  the  whole  currency  system  was 
vested  in  a  Federal  Reserve  Board,  composed  of  the  Secretary 


FEDERAL  RESERVE  DISTRICTS 

of  the  Treasury,  the  Comptroller,  and  five  men  appointed 
by  the  President  and  the  Senate,  with  the  power  to  issue 
money  on  certain  conditions,  and  thus  "  expand  "  or  in 
crease  the  currency  from  time  to  time.  It  was  thought 
that  the  leading  currency  problems  would  be  solved  (a)  by 
securing  federal  government  control ;  (b)  by  giving  local 
banks  a  fair  share  in  the  management ;  (c)  by  distributing 
the  "  money  power  "  over  all  sections  of  the  country,  to 
prevent  concentration  in  New  York  City ;  and  (d)  by  pro 
viding  for  the  issue  and  withdrawal  of  notes  to  meet  the 
demands  of  business. 


532         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN    PEOPLE 

IV.   THE  RAILROADS;   THE  TRUSTS;    CIVIL   SERVICE   RE 
FORM;  THE  LIQUOR  QUESTION 

Railway  Regulation  As  a  Political  Problem.  —  A  third 
great  political  question  was  the  regulation  of  railways.  At 
first  the  government  had  helped  the  railway  companies  with 
huge  gifts  of  land  and  money,  thus. stimulating  the  rapid 
building  of  lines  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  At  the  same 
time,  the  government  had  permitted  the  railroad  managers 
to  conduct  their  business  in  their  own  way  —  to  issue  worth 
less  stocks  and  bonds  and  sell  them  to  the  innocent  public, 
and  to  charge  high  freight  and  passenger  rates. 

There  was  accordingly  much  discontent  among  those  who 
shipped  goods  or  traveled.  The  farmers  in  the  West,  who 
depended  almost  entirely  upon  the  railways  for  carrying 
their  wheat,  corn,  live  stock,  and  other  produce  to  the  dis 
tant  eastern  markets,  began  to  grumble  about  "  the  ex 
tortions  of  railway  companies/'  In  the  early  seventies  the 
farmers  of  several  western  states,  among  them  Illinois  and 
Wisconsin,  forced  the  state  legislatures  to  pass  laws  reduc 
ing  freight  and  passenger  rates.  A  state,  however,  could 
regulate  only  the  carrying  of  goods  or  passengers  from  one 
point  to  another  within  its  borders.  The  control  of  inter 
state  commerce  was  given  to  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  under  the  Constitution. 

The  Interstate  Commerce  Law  (1887).  —  Pressure  was, 
therefore,  put  upon  Congress  to  provide  for  regulating  rail 
roads  engaged  in  interstate  business.  In  1887  Congress 
passed  an  important  law  creating  a  commission  of  five  mem 
bers  to  be  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate.  By 
this  law  and  various  amendments  in  later  years,  it  was  pro 
vided  that  the  railroad  rates  should  be  reasonable  and  that 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  should  have  the  right 
to  control  the  freight  and  passenger  rates  of  all  railroads  en- 


PARTIES   AND   POLITICAL   ISSUES  533 

gaged  in  interstate  commerce.  Thus  a  large  power  over 
the  property  of  railroad  companies  was  conferred  upon  the 
government  commission.  Many  people  called  it  a  form  of 
"  socialism,"  because  it  amounted  to  such  a  drastic  inter 
ference  with  private  business.  It  was  clear  from  expe 
rience,  however,  that  the  railroad  companies  could  not  be 
allowed  to  fix  any  rates  they  pleased  and  to  run  their 
business  in  their  own  way  regardless  of  the  public.  The 
example  of  certain  European  governments  which  owned 
and  operated  the  railways  was  cited  by  those  who  insisted 
that  government  regulation  was  only  a  mild  form  of  public 
interference.  On  account  of  war  conditions,  the  govern 
ment,  in  December,  1917,  took  over  nearly  all  the  rail 
roads  for  the  time.  This  was  confirmed  by  a  law  passed 
early  in  1918,  placing  all  railroads  under  government  man 
agement. 

Control  of  the  Trusts  a  Political  Problem.  —  A  fourth 
issue  akin  to  the  railway  question  was  that  of  control 
ling  the  "  trusts."  The  small  business  men  who  were 
driven  to  the  wall  by  these  great  concerns,  and  farmers 
and  other  consumers  who  were  compelled  to  pay  high  prices 
for  manufactures  began  to  denounce  the  trusts  in  violent 
language.  As  a  result  of  the  criticism,  Congress,  in  1890, 
passed  a  law  known  as  the  SJ^rman^Act,  which  declared 
illegal  every  combination  to  restrain  and  control  trade  or 
commerce  among  the  states  or  with  foreign  nations. 

Anti-trust  Legislation  Generally  Ineffective.  —  It  was 
thought  in  this  way  that  the  government  could  break  up 
the  trusts  by  prosecuting  the  men  who  formed  them.  The 
law  proved,  however,  to  be  a  dead  letter  for  many  years, 
because  almost  no  attempt  was  made  to  enforce  it  until 
the  administrations  of  President  Roosevelt  and  Presi 
dent  Taft.  Then  a  number  of  great  concerns,  such  as 
the  Standard  Oil  Company  and  the  American  Tobacco 


534        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

Company,  were  prosecuted  and  ordered  dissolved  into  many 
smaller  companies.  This  by  no  means  solved  the  trust 
problem.  Even  after  the  Democrats,  in  1913,  sought  to 
make  government  control  more  severe  by  passing  the  Clay 
ton  Anti-trust  Law,  combinations  and  trusts  continued 
to  flourish  as  before.  Competition  among  small  business 
men,  such  as  had  formerly  existed,  was  not  restored.  In 
1914  a  Federal  Trade  Commission  was  formed  to  supervise 
business  concerns  to  prevent  unfair  practices. 

Civil  Service  Reform.  Evils  of  the  "  Spoils  System."  - 
A  fifth  political  issue  was  that  of  civil  service  reform. 
As  a  result  of  "  the  spoils  system  "  (p.  255),  the  manage 
ment  of  public  business  was  often  in  the  hands  of  in 
experienced  people,  who  served  for  short  terms  and  whose 
positions  were  insecure.  Moreover,  in  each  political  party 
there  was  always  a  large  body  of  men  whose  principal 
ambition  was  to  get  paying  offices  in  the  government. 
These  men  took  part  in  politics  all  the  time,  attending 
primaries  and  conventions,  helping  to  nominate  candi 
dates  and  win  elections.  Politics  became  a  trade  by  which 
men  made  their  living.  The  politicians  looked  upon  the 
government  as  their  private  property  and  resented  the 
interference  of  plain  citizens.  Government  service,  wss  re 
garded,  not  as  a  dignified  calling,  but  as  mere  spoils. 

Naturally,  there  was  much  disapproval  of  this  state 
of  affairs.  The  critics  of  the  "  spoils  system  "  contended 
that  the  government  service  should  be  put  on  a  merit 
basis;  in  other  words,  (i)  that  men  and  women  should 
be  appointed  to  the  lower  government  offices  only  after 
passing  examinations  testing  their  fitness  for  such  places, 
and  (2)  that  after  they  were  appointed  they  should  not  be 
removed  on  any  other  ground  than  that  of  neglect  of  duty 
or  incapacity.  The  politicians  ridiculed  the  idea  and  called 
it  "  snivel  service  "  and  "  goody-goody  reform." 


PARTIES   AND   POLITICAL   ISSUES 


535 


G  ar field"  s  Assassination  Arouses  the  Country  to  the  Need 
of  Reform.  --In  1881,  however,  the  attention  of  the  entire 
country  was  forcibly  drawn  to  the  matter  when  President 
Garfield  was  assassinated  by  a  disappointed  office-seeker. 
Two  years  later  Congress  passed  a  civil  service  law  (i) 
authorizing  the  President  to  appoint  a  commission  to  con 
duct  examinations  for  admission  to  the  government  service, 


-V-.      I./      V  MONT.  j       N"  DAK'      \    MINN. 


White  indicates  territory  that  has  adop 


ted  Prohibition      \ 


WET  AND  DRY  TERRITORIAL  MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  APRIL,  1918. 
WHITE  INDICATES  PROHIBITION  TERRITORY 

and  (2)  empowering  him  to  designate,  from  time  to  time, 
groups  and  classes  of  federal  offices  that  should  be  taken 
out  of  the  spoils  system  and  placed  on  the  merit  basis. 
From  time  to  time  Presidents  increased  the  number  of 
offices  filled  by  examinations,  and  in  1916  out  of  more  than 
four  hundred  thousand  employees  over  half  held  positions  sub 
ject  to  competitive  appointment.  There  were  still  left,  how 
ever,  plenty  of  "  jobs  "  to  be  distributed  to  party  workers, 
The  Liquor  Question.  —  Attempts  to  prohibit  the  dis 
tilling  and  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  began  more  than 


536        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

half  a  century  ago.  In  the  decade  between  1850  and 
1860,  several  states  adopted  prohibition.  They  all  gave  it 
up,  however,  in  time,  for  one  reason  or  another,  and  the 
temperance  question  was  overshadowed  by  the  slavery  con 
troversy. 

The  Growth  of  the  Prohibition  Movement.  --  In  a  little 
while  it  reappeared.  In  1869  the  National  Prohibition  Re 
form  party  was  organized  in  Chicago,  and  in  1872  it  nomi 
nated  a  candidate  for  President  of  the  United  States.  From 
that  time  forward  the  Prohibitionists  entered  every  presi 
dential  election.  Their  vote  was  never  large  enough  to 
promise  success,  though  in  one  campaign  it  reached  almost  a 
quarter  of  a  million. 

State  after  state,  meanwhile,  adopted  state-wide  pro 
hibition  : 

Alabama  Iowa  New  Hampshire  South  Dakota 

Arizona  Kansas  New  Mexico  Tennessee 

Arkansas  Maine  North  Carolina  Texas 

Colorado  Michigan  North  Dakota  Utah 

Florida  Mississippi  Ohio  Virginia 

Georgia  Montana  Oklahoma  Washington 

Idaho  Nebraska  Oregon  West  Virginia 

Indiana  Nevada  South  Carolina  Wyoming 

In  other  states  great  sections  were  made  "dry"  by  what 
is  called  local  option;  that  is,  counties  and  towns  by  a 
popular  vote  decided  to  close  saloons.  An  amendment  to 
the  federal  constitution  providing  for  national  prohibition 
was  passed  by  the  required  two-thirds  vote  of  both  houses 
of  Congress,  in  December,  1917,  and  sent  to  the  states  for 
ratification.  The  ratification  of  the  amendment  by  the 
required  thirty-six  states  was  proclaimed  on  January  16, 
1919. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.  Why  did  the  Republicans  have  an  advantage  over  the 
Democrats  in  national  elections  for  a  long  time  after  the  Civil 


PARTIES  AND   POLITICAL  ISSUES  537 

War  ?  2.  What  man  succeeded  Andrew  Johnson  as  President  ? 
3.  How  was  the  presidential  campaign  of  1876  decided  ?  4.  How 
did  Arthur  come  to  be  President  ?  What  other  Presidents  have 
come  into  office  in  this  way?  5.  Who  was  the  first  successful 
candidate  of  the  Democratic  party  after  the  Civil  War  ?  6.  Who 
were  the  "mugwumps"  and  why  were  they  given  this  name? 
7.  What  man  held  the  office  of  President  from  1889  to  1893  ? 
Who  were  the  Presidents  between  1897  and  1913  ? 

II.  i.  What    position    did    the    Democrats    take    regarding    a 
protective    tariff?     What    are    the    differences    between    a    "pro 
tective"  tariff  and  a  tariff  "for  revenue  only"  ?      2.  What  party 
was  in  power  when  the  McKinley  tariff  bill  became  a  law  ?  the 
Wilson-Gorman    bill?     the    Dingley    bill?     3.  What    important 
changes  were  made  in  the  tariff  during  President  Wilson's  first 
administration  ?     4.  What   is   meant   by  an  income  tax  ?     When 
did   the   government   first   levy   income   taxes  ?     What   were   the 
provisions   of  the    income-tax   law   of    1894?     What    party   had 
secured  the  passage  of  this  law  ?     Why  did  it  not  go  into  effect  ? 
5.   How    was    the    income-tax    problem    finally    solved  ?        6.   In 
whose  administration  was  the  first  tariff  commission  established  ? 
What  were  to  be  the  duties  of  this  commission  ? 

III.  I.  Why  were  the  "greenbacks"  issued?     How  did  they 
differ  from  the  paper  money  that  is  used  in  this  country  to-day? 
Why    did    they    depreciate    in    value  ?     During    what    preceding 
period  in  our  history  had  the  government  issued   paper  money 
similar  to  the  greenbacks  ?     (See  Chapter  XIV.)     2.  How  was  the 
greenback   problem   finally  solved?       3.  What  is  meant   by  the 
statement  that  the  government  first  coined  silver  at  the  "ratio 
of  15  to  i"  ?     When  the  ratio  was  changed  to  "16  to  i"  did  the 
silver  miners  receive  more  or  less  gold  from  the  government  for 
their  product  ?     For  what  other  purposes  is  silver  used  in  addition 
to  making  coins  ?     What  would  be  the  effect  if  those  who  used 
silver  in  other  ways  offered  the  miners  more  than  the  government 
offered  for  making  it  into  money  ?       4.   Suppose,  however,  that 
new  mines  were  opened  and  that  the  supply  of  silver  suddenly 
increased:    what  would  happen  to  the  price  of  silver  in  market? 
How  did  the  actual  ratio  of  silver  to  gold  change  when  the  new 
mines  in  the  West  began  to  produce  large  quantities  of  silver  ? 
Why  did  the  miners,  then,  wish  to  have  the  government  buy  silver 
at  the  old  ratio  of  1 6  to  i  ?     Why  did  the  farmers  join  with  the 


538        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

miners  in  this  request  ?  5.  Which  of  the  two  political  parties 
in  1896  favored  this  "free"  coinage  of  silver  at  the  ratio  of  16  to 
I  ?  Who  was  the  candidate  of  this  party  ?  Who  was  his  oppo 
nent  and  how  did  the  election  turn  out  ?  6.  What  led  to  the  es 
tablishment  of  the  Federal  Reserve  banks  ?  In  what  way  did 
these  banks  help  to  solve  the  currency  problem  ? 

IV.  i.  In  what  ways  had  the  government  aided  in  the  con 
struction  of  railways  ?  2.  What  control,  if  any,  did  it  have  in 
return  over  the  operation  of  the  railways,  the  sale  of  stock,  the 
rates  for  carrying  freight  and  passengers,  and  other  matters  of 
public  interest?  3.  Why  was  the  control  of  the  state  govern 
ments  over  these  matters  not  wholly  satisfactory  ?  4.  What 
commission  was  established  by  law  in  1887?  What  powers 
were  given  to  this  commission  ?  5.  Why  did  the  control  of 
the  trusts  become  an  important  national  problem  ?  How  did 
the  Sherman  act  attempt  to  solve  this  problem  ?  What,  in  gen 
eral,  has  been  the  result  of  the  "anti-trust"  legislation  ?  6.  What 
is  meant  by  the  "spoils  system"?  In  connection  with  what 
administration  have  we  already  learned  something  of  this  system  ? 
(See  Chapter  XIV.)  How  did  the  assassination  of  President  Garfield 
attract  public  attention  to  the  evils  of  the  system  ?  What  im 
portant  law  was  passed  to  correct  these  evils  ?  If  you  should 
wish  to  secure  an  appointment  in  some  branch  of  the  government 
service  now,  what  steps  would  you  take  ?  7.  What  progress 
had  the  prohibition  movement  made  before  the  Civil  War  ?  Can 
you  think  of  any  reasons  why  the  war  should  have  temporarily 
halted  this  movement  ?  When  was  the  prohibition  amendment 
passed  by  Congress  ?  When  was  it  ratified  by  the  States  ? 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  The  presidential  election  of  1876  was  the  only  one  in  our 
history  the  results  of  which  have  been  seriously  disputed.     An 
interesting  account  of  the  campaign,  the  election,  and  the  final 
decision   of  the   electoral   commission   will   be   found   in    Elson's 
"Side-Lights  on  American  History,"  vol.  ii,  ch.  xi. 

2.  Next  to  slavery,  the  tariff  has  been  most  frequently  a  "burn 
ing  issue"  of  national  politics.     Give  as  many  reasons  as  you  can 
explaining  why  this  issue  has  caused  so  much  discussion. 

See    especially    Elson's    "Side-Lights    on    American    History," 
vol.  ii,  ch.  xiii. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

FOREIGN    AFFAIRS  :    THE    UNITED   STATES   AS   A    WORLD 

POWER 

I.   CONTROVERSIES  WITH  GREAT  BRITAIN 

The  Alabama  Affair.  —  During  the  Civil  War  and  the 
three  decades  following  it,  there  were  several  controversies 
with  Great  Britain. 

The  first  grave  difficulty  arose  out  of  "  the  Alabama 
claims."  During  the  Civil  War  agents  of  the  Confederate 
government  were  permitted  to  purchase  warships  in  Great 
Britain,  contrary  to  the  rules  of  international  law.  One  of 
these  ships,  the  Alabama,  built  in  Liverpool,  for  a  long  time 
preyed  on  merchant  vessels,  destroying  goods  and  shipping 
and  causing  heavy  losses  to  American  citizens.  The  United 
States  lodged  a  protest  with  the  British  government,  de 
claring  that  it  was  responsible  in  allowing  the  Alabama  to 
clear  for  the  high  seas.  Wlien  the  English  government 
disclaimed  responsibility  in  the  matter,  many  leaders  in 
this  country  insisted  that  our  answer  should  be  a  declara 
tion  of  war.  Fortunately  rash  counsels  did  not  prevail 
in  either  country. 

Arbitration  of  the  Dispute.  —  In  1871  an  agreement  was 
made  with  Great  Britain  to  submit  all  questions  in  contro 
versy  to  a  tribunal  composed  of  five  arbitrators  to  be  selected 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  Queen  Victoria,  the 
King  of  Italy,  the  Emperor  of  Brazil,  and  the  President  of 
Switzerland.  This  tribunal  sat  at  Geneva  and  reviewed 

539 


540        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

all  the  disputes  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 
It  awarded  the  sum  of  fifteen  million  dollars  to  the  United 
States  to  cover  the  estimated  losses  of  American  citizens 
from  ravages  of  Confederate  ships  built  in  England.1 

The  Venezuela  Affair. --The  second  difficulty  with  Great 
Britain  occurred  in  1895.  For  a  long  time  Venezuela  and 
Great  Britain  had  been  disputing  about  the  boundary  line 
between  the  former  country  and  British  Guiana.  The 
United  States,  on  the  appeal  of  the  South  American  re 
public,  had  taken  an  interest  in  the  quarrel  on  the  principle 
announced  in  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  namely,  that  the 
United  States  would  not  permit  any  European  power  to 
acquire  more  territory  in  the  Western  Hemisphere.  Great 
Britain  asserted  that  she  was  not  attempting  to  acquire 
any  new  territory,  but  was  merely  claiming  what  lawfully 
belonged  to  her,  and  that  the  Monroe  Doctrine  was  not 
involved.  When  England  and  Venezuela  came  to  a  dead 
lock,  and  Great  Britain  rejected  the  suggestion  of  our 
Secretary  of  State,  Richard  Olney,  that  the  dispute  be 
arbitrated,  the  affair  reached  a  critical  stage. 

Cleveland's  Message  to  Congress.  —  President  Cleveland, 
in  his  message  to  Congress  in  December,  1895,  asked  that  a 
commission  be  created  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the 
true  boundary  between  Venezuela  and  British  Guiana ;  and 
then  he  added  in  a  very  determined  manner  that  it  would 
be  the  duty  of  the  United  States  to  resist  by  every  means 
in  its  power  any  attempt  of  Great  Britain  to  hold 
lands  which  this  American  commission  might  decide  to  be 

1  Another  dispute  that  arose  during  the  Civil  War  was  with  France.  While 
the  United  States  was  engaged  in  the  war,  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain  tried 
to  force  Mexico  to  pay  her  indebtedness  to  citizens  of  those  countries.  France 
finally  sent  an  expedition  to  Mexico,  overthrew  the  government,  and  established 
Maximilian,  a  brother  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  as  Emperor.  In  1865  Secretary 
Seward  demanded  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  troops,  and  the  French  Emperor 
(Napoleon  III)  finally  recalled  them.  The  Mexicans  then  dethroned  Maximilian, 
and  restored  their  own  government. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  AS  A  WORLD  POWER         541 

Venezuelan  territory.  He  went  on  to  hint  that  war  might 
result. 

England  Submits  the  Question  to  Arbitration.  —  Presi 
dent  Cleveland's  vigorous  message  was  approved  by  many 
American  citizens,  but  it  was  severely  criticized  by  others 
on  the  ground  that  it  might  bring  on  a  needless  war.  It 
was  a  matter  for  general  surprise  when  Great  Britain,  in 
stead  of  refusing  to  permit  interference  by  the  government 
of  the  United  States,  aided  the  American  commission  in 
its  search  for  evidence  as  to  the  truth  about  the  boundary 
in  question,  and  finally  yielded  to  the  proposition  that  the 
whole  matter  should  be  arbitrated.  As  a  result,  the  quarrel 
which  brought  the  two  countries  ,to  the  very  verge  of  war 
was  happily  settled.  The  tribunal  of  arbitration  met  at 
Paris  in  1899.  Ex-President  Harrison  was  the  lawyer 
for  Venezuela.  The  court  of  arbitration,  after  going  into 
the  matter  carefully,  rendered  a  decision  which  was,  on  the 
whole,  favorable  to  Great  Britain.  The  affair  was  brought 
to  an  end,  President  Cleveland  receiving  praise  for  his  inde 
pendence,  and  Great  Britain  finding  consolation  in  getting 
nearly  everything  she  claimed. 

Difficulties  with  Canadians  Arbitrated.  --  Equally  for 
tunate  was  the  peaceful  settlement  of  several  controversies 
with  Canada,  particularly  over  the  right  to  catch  seals  on 
the  western  coast,  the  fisheries  along  the  eastern  coast, 
the  navigation  of  the  Great  Lakes,  and  above  all,  the  Alas 
kan  boundary.  The  boundary  question  was  submitted  to 
arbitration  in  1903,  and  the  claims  of  the  United  States, 
except  in  a  few  details,  were  approved  as  correct,  the 
British  commissioner  taking  the  American  side.  The 
victory  by  the  United  States  was  regarded  by  many  Ca 
nadians  as  unjust,  but  it  was  accepted  by  them  with  good 
grace. 


542        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

II.    SAMOA   AND   HAWAII;  THE  GROWTH  OF  FOREIGN 

TRADE 

The  Controversy  with  Germany  over  Samoa.  —  While 
the  English  and  Americans  were  settling  their  quarrels  by 
peaceful  means,  important  events  were  taking  place  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  Far  away  to  the  southwest,  nearer  to  Aus 
tralia  than  to  the  United  States,  lay  the  Samoan  Islands, 
inhabited  by  a  number  of  half-savage  tribes  with  whom  the 
various  civilized  countries  of  the  world  carried  on  more  or 
less  trade.  As  early  as  1878,  the  United  States  had  made  a 
treaty  with  a  petty  king  in  Tutuila,  and  secured  a  naval 
base  in  the  harbor  of  Pago  Pago  in  exchange  for  an  agree 
ment  to  lend  assistance  to  him  in  time  of  need. 

A  few  years  afterward  a  native  king,  Malietoa,  got  into 
a  quarrel  with  the  German  consul,  who  had  raised  his 
country's  flag  there,  and  a  number  of  sailors  who  landed 
from  a  German  battleship  in  the  harbor  were  killed.  The 
British  government,  which  had  watched  with  alarm  the 
conduct  of  Germany  in  the  Pacific,  and  the  government 
of  the  United  States,  equally  anxious,  sent  warships  to  the 
Islands.  There  was  some  fear  that  war  would  result,  but 
better  counsels  prevailed,  and  in  1889  the  United  States 
joined  with  Great  Britain  and  Germany  in  a  protectorate 
over  the  Samoan  Islands.  This  did  not  prove  to  be  satis 
factory.  Ten  years  later  the  plan  was  abandoned,  and  the 
United  States  obtained  outright  possession  of  the  Island 
of  Tutuila,  thus  securing  an  important  naval  base  in  the 
southwestern  Pacific. 

The  Hawaiian  Question. -- The  acquisition  of  Tutuila 
awakened  a  new  interest  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  which 
lie  about  half  way  between  Samoa  and  San  Francisco.  For 
a  long  time  American  missionaries  and  traders  had  been  at 
work  in  those  islands,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 


THE  UNITED  STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWER         543 

century  the  Americans  had  more  influence  there  than  the 
agents   of  any   other   government. 

The  Annexation  of  Hawaii. — In  1893  some  Americans 
in  Hawaii,  aided  by  a  few  natives,  alleged  that  the  queen, 
Liliuokalani,  was  ruling  in  an  arbitrary  manner,  and  started 
a  revolt  against  her  at  Honolulu.  They  organized  a  gov 
ernment  of  their  own,  under  the  protection  of  United  States 
marines  then  stationed  on  a  warship  in  the  harbor,  and 
sent  agents  to  the  United  States  asking  for  annexation. 
President  Cleveland,  however,  thought  that  this  action  by 
the  Americans  in  Hawaii  was  very  high-handed;  and  he 
steadily  refused  to  lend  support  to  the  plan.  It  was  not 
until  the  summer  of  1898  that  Congress  by  joint  resolution 
declared  the  Hawaiian  Islands  to  be  a  part  of  the  United 
States.  Not  long  afterward  they  were  organized  into  a 
regular  territory,  governed  by  a  legislature  locally  elected 
and  a  governor  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate  of 
the  United  States. 

American  Industries  Seek  Foreign  Markets.  —  Until 
the  closing  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  attention 
of  our  people  had  been  centered  largely  on  home  affairs  : 
the  abolition  of  slavery,  the  construction  of  railroads,  the 
development  of  western  lands  and  mineral  resources,  and 
the  upbuilding  of  industries  of  every  kind.  Before  the 
inauguration  of  President  McKinley,  in  1897,  practically 
all  of  the  arable  western  farming  lands  had  been  occupied, 
and  the  great  industries,  having  supplied  the  home  demand 
for  staple  commodities,  were  prepared  to  sell  immense  stocks 
abroad  wherever  markets  could  be  found.  In  other  words, 
in  her  industrial  growth  the  United  States  had  arrived  at  a 
point  which  England  had  reached  many  decades  before. 
American  business  men  were  looking  abroad  for  new 
markets  in  which  to  sell  their  products,  and  new  opportuni 
ties  to  invest  capital  in  profitable  enterprises. 


544        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

III.   THE   CUBAN   REVOLT  LEADS   TO  THE   SPANISH- 
AMERICAN  WAR 

The  Cubans  Revolt  against  Spain.  —  By  1895  American 
citizens  had  more  than  fifty  million  dollars  invested  in  busi 
ness  in  Cuba  and  a  trade  of  nearly  one  hundred  millions 
annually.  In  that  year  there  broke  out  a  revolt  in  Cuba, 
which  was  marked  by  extreme  cruelty  on  both  sides  and  by 
great  loss  of  lives  and  property.  The  leader  of  the  rebels 
ordered  the  destruction  of  plantations,  burned  sugar  facto 
ries,  and  laid  waste  thousands  of  acres  of  valuable  lands 
owned  by  Americans.  What  he  left  undone  was  finished 
by  the  Spanish  general,  Weyler,  who  not  only  destroyed 
property  but  gathered  up  the  rural  inhabitants  and  forced 
them  to  live  in  military  camps,  where  they  died  of  disease 
by  the  hundreds.  Business  was  paralyzed,  and  in  a  little 
while  American  citizens  had  filed  claims  against  Spain 
amounting  to  millions  of  dollars  for  property  which,  they 
alleged,  had  been  ruined. 

America  Sympathizes  with  the  Cubans.  -  -  The  cruelties  of 
the  Spanish  generals  stirred  the  sympathy  of  the  American 
people.  Sermons  were  preached  against  Spanish  rule ; 
orators  declared  that  the  Cuban  people  should  be  aided  in 
their  "  heroic  struggle  for  liberty"  ;  and  radical  newspapers 
demanded  that  the  government  of  the  United  States  inter 
vene  at  once  to  secure  Cuban  independence.  Cuban  agen 
cies  were  formed  in  American  cities  to  raise  money  and 
secretly  ship  supplies  and  arms  to  the  revolutionists. 

McKinley  Protests  to  Spain.  —  During  the  presidential 
campaign  of  1896,  the  Cuban  revolt  was  discussed  along 
with  other  issues.  The  Republicans  complained  that  Spain 
was  unable  to  protect  the  property  or  lives  of  American 
citizens  residing  in  Cuba,  and  declared  that  the  American 
government  should  offer  to  mediate  between  Spain  and  the 


THE  UNITED  STATES  AS  A  WORLD   POWER         545 

insurgents.  President  Cleveland  assumed  an  attitude  of 
neutrality,  although  he  did  suggest,  without  avail,  that  an 
attempt  should  be  made  to  settle  the  quarrel  by  mediation. 
The  new  President  chosen  in  1896,  McKinley,  shortly 
after  his  inauguration  protested  to  Spain  against  her  policy 
in  Cuba  and  demanded  that  order  be  restored. 

The  "  Maine  "  Blown  Up.  -  -  The  United  States  and  Spain 
were  engaged  in  exchanging  letters  on  Cuban  affairs  when, 
on  February  15,  1898,  the  battleship  Maine,  which  had 
been  sent  by  President  McKinley  to  protect  Americans  in 
Havana,  was  blown  up  in  the  harbor,  and  two  officers  and 
two  hundred  fifty-eight  members  of  the  crew  were  killed. 
The  tragedy  stirred  the  country  from  coast  to  coast.  People 
in  the  streets  began  to  wear  buttons  bearing  the  legend, 
"  Remember  the  Maine"  and  the  advocates  of  war  re 
doubled  their  demands  for  immediate  action.  Although 
Spain  denied  having  any  official  knowledge  of  the  cause 
of  the  explosion  which  wrecked  the  Maine,  arjd  the  charge 
was  never  proved,  many  American  citizens  believed  that 
Spanish  officers  in  Cuba  had  been  responsible  for  it. 

The  Popular  Demand  for  War.  --  For  some  time  nego 
tiations  continued  between  the  United  States  and  Spain. 
The  Spanish  government  made  many  promises.  It  agreed 
to  restore  peace  in  Cuba,  to  permit  the  establishment  of  a 
Cuban  parliament,  and  to  grant  a  certain  amount  of  self- 
government  to  the  Cubans.  In  short,  the  Spanish  govern 
ment  claimed  that  it  had  yielded  to  the  Cubans  everything 
except  complete  independence,  and  had  met  all  the  demands 
made  by  the  United  States.  President  McKinley,  however, 
refused  to  believe  in  the  Spanish  promises.  He  was  urged 
on  every  hand  to  break  off  negotiations  and  drive  Spain 
from  the  Western  Hemisphere. 

War  with  Spain  (1898).  —  On  April  n,  1898,  President 
McKinley  sent  a  message  to  Congress  saying  that  the  time 


546        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


had  come  to  suppress  the  disorders  in  the  island,  and  to 
protect  American  lives  and  property  there.  On  April  19 
Congress  declared  that  Cuba  should  be  free,  that  Spain 
should  be  compelled  to  withdraw,  and  that  the  President 
should  be  empowered  to  use  military  and  naval  forces  to 
bring  Spain  to  terms.  While  in  fact  declaring  war  on 
Spain,  Congress  added  that  the  United  States  had  no 


C  A  R  I  B~"      B  E          A  N 


SEA 


\Vm«.  Eng.  Co.,   N.V. 


THE  WEST  INDIES 


intention  of  exercising  any  control  over  Cuba  except  to 
establish  peace  there  and  would  withdraw  when  freedom 
and  order  were  secured. 

Dewey' s  Victory  at  Manila  Bay.  --In  the  war  which 
followed,  the  most  dramatic  events  occurred  on  the  sea. 
Admiral  Dewey,  in  command  of  the  Asiatic  squadron  of 
the  American  fleet,  had  been  instructed,  in  February,  to 
hold  his  ships  at  Hongkong  and  be  ready  at  any  time  to 
sail  for  the  Philippines.  On  receiving  news  that  war  was 
declared,  Dewey  left  the  Chinese  waters  and  steamed  into 
Manila  Bay  on  the  evening  of  April  30.  Early  on  the  fol- 


THE   UNITED   STATES   AS   A  WORLD   POWER         547 

lowing  morning  he  opened  fire  on  the  little  Spanish  fleet 
under  the  guns  of  the  forts  at  Manila.  Within  a  few 
hours  he  had  destroyed  the  enemy's  warships,  killed 
nearly  four  hundred  men,  and  silenced  the  shore  batteries, 
-  all  without  the  loss  of  a  single  American  sailor.  News 
of  the  extraordinary  venture  reached  the  United  States 
by  way  of  Hongkong,  on  May  6,  and  the  hero  of  the  day 
was  by  popular  acclaim  given  a  place  among  the  immortals 
of  American  naval  history. 

The  Blockade  of  the  Cuban  Ports.  —  Meanwhile  great 
events  were  taking  place  nearer  home.  Rear  Admiral 
Sampson,  in  charge  of  the  Atlantic  squadron,  had  blockaded 
the  coasts  of  Cuba  and  had  begun  to  watch  for  the  Spanish 
fleet  which  was  on  the  way  to  Cuba.  Nevertheless  the 
Spanish  admiral,  Cervera,  was  able  to  slip 'into  the  harbor 
of  Santiago  on  May  19,  where  he  was  at  once  bottled  up 
by  American  ships.  The  battleship  Oregon,  which  was  on 
the  Pacific  coast  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  made  the  long 
voyage  around  Cape  Horn,  and,  "  as  trim  as  a  yacht," 
joined  the  American  ships  in  the  Atlantic. 

El  Caney  and  San  Juan  Hill.  --  In  a  short  time  after  the 
arrival  of  Cervera  the  American  troops,  principally  soldiers 
from  the  regular  army,  embarked  from  Tampa,  Florida, 
where  they  had  been  concentrating  for  several  weeks. 
They  reached  Cuba  on  June  22,  and  opened  a  campaign 
under  General  Shafter.  The  most  serious  battles  occurred 
at  El  Caney  and  San  Juan  Hill,  two  strategic  points  near 
the  city  of  Santiago.  It  was  at  the  second  of  these  places 
that  the  famous  Rough  Riders  —  a  regiment  organized 
by  Colonel  Roosevelt  —  distinguished  themselves.  After 
several  engagements,  in  which  the  fortunes  of  the  day  were 
generally  on  the  side  of  the  Americans,  preparations  were 
made  for  the  storming  of  Santiago. 

The  Spanish  Fleet  Destroyed  off  Santiago.  -  -  The  Spanish 


548        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

fleet  attempted  to  escape  from  the  harbor  of  Santiago, 
on  the  morning  of  July  3,  and  was  completely  demolished 
by  the  American  battleships  in  immediate  charge  of 
Commodore  Schley.  Within  a  few  hours  all  the  Spanish 
ships  were  destroyed  or  captured,  with  a  loss  of  about  six 
hundred  killed  and  wounded,  while  the  Americans  had  only 
one  man  killed  and  one  man  wounded.  This  naval  victor)/ 


THE  ATTACK  ON  SAX  JUAN  HILL,  AN  IMPORTANT  POINT  NEAR  THE 
CITY  OF  SANTIAGO 

marked  the  doom  of  Santiago,  although  it  did  not  surrender 
formally  until  July  17,  after  two  days'  bombardment. 

The  Invasion  of  Porto  Rico.  The  Peace  Protocol.  -  -  The 
fall  of  Santiago  ended  the  war  in  Cuba,  and  General  Miles 
was  sent  to  the  neighboring  island  of  Porto  Rico  to  de 
stroy  Spanish  dominion  there.  His  troops  were  rapidly 
gaining  headway,  without  having  to  fight  any  battles,  when 
the  news  arrived  on  August  12  that  steps  had  been  taken  to 
restore  peace  between  Spain  and  the  United  States.  On 
that  day  Spain,  acting  through  the  good  offices  of  the  French 
ambassador  at  Washington,  had  agreed  that  Cuba  should 
be  free,  that  Porto  Rico  should  be  ceded  to  the  United  States, 
and  that  Manila  should  be  occupied  by  American  troops, 


140°     Longitude        160°  East  180°     Longitude        160°  West        from   140°    Greenwich        120a 


AMERICAN  DOMINIONS  IN  THE  PACIFIC 


THE   UNITED   STATES   AS  A  WORLD   POWER         549 

pending  the  final  settlement.  Unfortunately  the  news  of 
this  preliminary  peace  plan  did  not  reach  Manila  until  after 
more  blood  had  been  shed.  On  August  13,  the  day  after  the 
signing  of  the  peace  protocol,  the  American  troops  under 
the  direction  of  Admiral  Dewey  and  General  Merritt  took 
Manila  by  storm. 

IV.   THE  RESULTS  OF  THE  WAR;  AMERICA'S   NEW 
INTERESTS  IN  THE  ORIENT 

The  Acquisition  of  the  Philippines,  Porto  Rico,  and 
Guam,  -  -  The  final  terms  of  peace  between  the  United 
States  and  Spain  were  arranged  by  agents  of  the  two 
countries  who  met  at  Paris  on  October  I,  1898.  There 
was  general  uncertainty  at  first  as  to  what  should 
be  done  with  the  Philippine  Islands,  of  which  the  Ameri 
can  people  had  little  knowledge  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
war.  Some  citizens  were  opposed  to  the  idea  that  the 
United  States  should  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  the  con 
quering  nations  of  the  Old  World  and  hold  "  imperial  " 
dominions  far  across  the  seas.  Others,  however,  declared 
that  the  American  trade  and  commerce  in  the  Far  East 
would  be  aided  by  having  a  strong  naval  base  near  the 
Asiatic  coast.  It  was  contended  that  we  had  got  into  the 
Philippines  and  could  not  very  well  withdraw.  At  all 
events,  the  final  treaty  of  peace,  drawn  up  at  Paris,  provided 
that  Cuba  should  be  free,  and  that  Porto  Rico,  the  Philip 
pines,  and  Guam  should  be  ceded  to  the  United  States. 

The  Filipinos  Resist  American  Rule  (1899-1902).  - 
Before  the  treaty  of  peace  was  ratified,  a  rebellion  broke  out 
in  the  Philippines.  For  a  long  time  the  native  Filipinos 
had  been  dissatisfied  with  Spanish  rule.  Just  before  the  war 
began  between  Spain  and  the  United  States,  there  had  been 
a  rebellion  under  the  leadership  of  a  champion  of  Philippine 


550        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


0        100      200      300 

Wms.Eng.Co.,N.r. 


THE  ORIENT  AND  THE  PHILIPPINES 


THE   UNITED   STATES   AS  A  WORLD   POWER         551 

independence,  Aguinaldo.  When  the  American  troops 
stormed  Manila,  Aguinaldo  and  his  followers,  gathered 
under  the  banner  of  the  Philippine  Republic,  had  been  in 
vited  to  take  part,  and  had  distinguished  themselves  by  great 
valor.  When  the  native  leaders  heard  in  January,  1899, 
that  the  United  States  did  not  intend  to  grant  them  inde 
pendence,  but  proposed  to  hold  their  islands  as  American 
territory,  they  were  surprised  and  bitterly  disappointed. 

On  February  4  trouble  broke  out  between  the  American 
soldiers  and  the  Filipino  troops.  This  affair  marked  the 
beginning  of  a  rebellion  which  lasted  nearly  three  years. 
During  the  struggle  there  were  not  many  pitched  battles. 
Most  of  the  fighting  occurred  in  wild,  out-of-the-way  places 
where  the  native  troops  picked  off  small  bands  of  Ameri 
can  soldiers  or  were  destroyed  by  American  regiments. 
Cruel  deeds  were  committed  during  the  war,  and  the 
whole  affair  made  many  citizens  wonder  whether  this  new 
"  imperialism  "  was  in  accord  with  American  ideals  of  in 
dependence  and  self-government. 

The  Boxer  Rebellion  in  China  (1900).  —  Soon  after  the 
United  States  had  annexed  the  Philippine  Islands,  it  took 
another  step  in  world  politics,  namely,  helped  in  suppress 
ing  a  revolt  in  China.  In  1900  a  number  of  Chinese,  known 
as  "  Boxers,"  who  resented  the  constant  interference  of 
European  powers  in  the  affairs  of  their  country,  rose  in 
rebellion  and  killed  the  German  ambassador  and  a  large 
number  of  foreigners  at  Pekin.  Immediately  the  United 
States  joined  Russia,  England,  France,  Germany,  Japan, 
and  other  powers,  in  sending  soldiers  to  suppress  the 
Boxer  Rebellion. 

The  expedition  was  easily  successful,  and  when  order 
was  restored  the  Chinese  were  compelled  to  pay  a  huge 
sum  for  damages  done  to  the  foreigners.  Unlike  several  of 
the  powers  of  the  world,  which  had  seized  Chinese  lands 


552         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

and  were  ready  to  take  more,  the  government  of  the  United 
States  advocated  merely  equal  and  impartial  trade  with 
China  for  all  countries  —  an  "  open  door."  Moreover,  the 
United  States,  finding  that  the  damages  awarded  to  it 
in  the  settlement  were  greatly  in  excess  of  the  losses 
actually  incurred,  instead  of  merely  pocketing  the  difference, 


From  the  Detroit  "  Evening  Neivs  " 

"  GOING  TO  STAY  A  WHILE  " 
A  cartoon  of  the  expedition  into  China,  1900. 

as  did  the  other   nations,   decided   that   it  should  be  used 
for  the  education  of  Chinese  in  American  schools. 

"  Imperialism  "  a  Political  Issue.  —  All  these  stirring 
events  beyond  the  seas  naturally  awakened  deep  interest 
and  anxiety  at  home,  and,  in  the  presidential  campaign 
of  1900,  "  imperialism  "  -  the  use  of  strategy  and  force  to 
acquire  territory  and  trade  abroad  —  was  everywhere  dis 
cussed.  The  Democrats,  under  the  leadership  of  their 
candidate,  Mr.  Bryan,  attacked  the  Republicans,  saying 


THE   UNITED   STATES   AS   A  WORLD   POWER 


553 


that  they  had  departed  from  the  ideals  of  the  Fathers 
of  America  and  were  following  in  the  footsteps  of  old 
Rome  by  conquering  and  ruling  subject  races.  The  Demo 
crats  also  criticized  the  government  for  waging  war  on  a 
people  who  were  striving  for  the  right  of  self-government, 
and  declared  that  independence  at  a  very  early  date  should 
be  promised  to  the  Filipinos. 

The  Republicans,  on  their  part,  replied  that  (i)  the  Philip 
pine  Islands  had  fallen  to  the  United  States  as  an  unex 
pected  result  of  the  war;  (2)  there  were  many  different 


WILLIAM  JENNINGS  BRYAN  LECTURING  AT  A  CHAUTAUQUA  MEETING 

tribes  and  peoples  in  the  islands  in  all  stages  of  civiliza 
tion,  who  were  not  prepared  at  all  for  self-government ; 
(3)  for  the  United  States  to  abandon  them  would  make  the 
islands  the  prey  of  any  covetous  power ;  and  (4)  the 
best  thing  to  do  was  to  help  prepare  the  natives  for  self- 
government  by  introducing  order,  education,  trade,  and 
industry.  The  Republicans  were  victorious  in  the  election 
of  1900,  and  naturally  assumed  that  the  country  had  ap 
proved  their  imperial  policies. 

American  Developments  in  the  New  Territory.  —  As  soon 
as  order  was  restored  in  any  of  the  provinces  of  the  Philip- 


554        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

pines,  the  United  States  established  civil  government  and 
attempted  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  masses.  A 
great  educational  plan  was  formed,  and  hundreds  of 
American  teachers  were  sent  over  to  give  instruction  to 
people  who  had  never  before  known  how  to  read  and 
write.  Highways  and  railroads  were  built ;  improved 
methods  of  cultivating  the  soil  were  introduced ;  and 
many  new  industries  were  established. 

In  1907  the  Filipinos  were  granted  a  share  in  their  own 
government.  A  large  number  of  the  native  men  were  given 
the  right  to  vote  and  to  elect  delegates  to  a  general  as 
sembly  in  which  many  matters  of  local  importance  could 
be  decided.  The  governor  of  the  islands  and  the  members 
of  the  upper  house  of  the  legislature,  however,  were  to  be 
appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate  of  the  United  States. 

About  the  same  kind  of  government  was  set  up  in  Porto 
Rico.  Native  men  having  certain  qualifications  were  granted 
a  share  in  making  laws,  while  the  final  control  was  reserved 
to  persons  chosen  by  the  government  of  the  United  States. 

More  Home  Rule  in  the  Dependencies.  —  Notwithstanding 
their  defeats  on  the  issue  of  "  imperialism,"  the  Democrats 
never  ceased  to  advocate  Philippine  independence  and 
more  home  rule  for  Porto  Rico.  When  they  came  to 
power  in  1913  they  immediately  began  to  plan  reforms  for 
the  dependencies.  In  1916  Congress  passed  a  law  which 
declared  that  it  was  the  intention  of  this  country  to  grant 
independence  to  the  Filipinos  when  they  were  ready  for 
it  and  which  at  the  same  time  gave  the  native  voters  the 
power  to  elect  the  upper  as  well  as  the  lower  house  of  the 
legislature.  In  1917  a  similar  change  was  made  in  the  gov 
ernment  of  Porto  Rico,  coupled  with  universal  manhood 
suffrage. 


THE   UNITED   STATES   AS   A  WORLD   POWER         555 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.   What  is  meant  by  arbitration?     How  were  the  claims 
of  the  United  States  against  Great  Britain  for  damages  done  by 
Confederate  cruisers  settled  ?       2.  Why  did  President  Cleveland 
feel  justified  in  interfering  in  England's  controversy  with  Vene 
zuela  ?     How  wTas  war  with  England  avoided  at  this  time?       3. 
What  difficulties  between  this  country  and  Canada  were  settled 
by  arbitration  ? 

II.  I.   Locate    the    Samoan   Islands.     How    did    the    United 
States  come  into  possession  of  the  Island  of  Tutuila  ?       2.  Why 
was   the   possession   of  the   Hawaiian    Islands   important   to   the 
United    States  ?     In    what   way    did    the   American    residents    in 
Hawaii  attempt  to  secure  the  Islands  for  this  country  ?     What 
was  President  Cleveland's  opinion  of  this  effort  ?     When  did  the 
Islands  finally  become  an  American  possession  ? 

III.  I.  Why  did  the  Americans  sympathize  with  the  Cubans 
in  their  revolt   against  Spain  ?     2.   What  immediate  event  led  to 
the    Spanish-American  War?     3.  What    great    victories    did   the 
American  navy  gain  in   this  war  ?     4.  What  were   the    principal 
land  battles  ?     5.   Name  the  important  American  leaders  in  the 
war. 

IV.  i.   What   new   possessions   did   the   Americans   gain    as    a 
result  of  the  Spanish-American  War  ?       2.  What  disposition  was 
made  of  Cuba?       3.   How  had  the  Filipinos  aided  the  Americans 
in  the  attack  on  Manila  ?     What  did  they  do  when  they  learned 
that    the    United    States    was    to    take    over    the    government  ? 
4.  Why  were  American    soldiers  sent  to   China  in    1900?     What 
was  the  result  of  this  intervention  ?      5.   How  did  the  United  States 
use  part  of  the  indemnity  paid  by  China  for  damages  done  during 
the   Boxer   Rebellion?     6.   What    is    meant    by    "imperialism"? 
Why  did  some  American  leaders  object  to  the  acquisition  by  the 
United  States  of  territorial  possessions  so  far  away  as  the  Phil 
ippines  ?     7.  What  have  the  Americans  done  to  help  the  Filipinos  ? 
How  are  the  Islands  now  governed  ? 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

i.   Select  one  of  the  following  topics  for  special  study  and  report  : 

The   Cuban    Revolt:     See    Elson's    "Side-Lights   on   American 

History,"  vol.  ii,  pp.  352-358  ;  Hart's  "Source  Book,"  pp.  373-379. 


556        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

The  Battle  of  Manila  Bay:  See  Elson,  pp.  363-373;  South- 
worth's  "Builders  of  Our  Country,"  Book  II,  pp.  256-259. 

Santiago,  El  Caney,  and  San  Juan  Hill :  See  Elson,  pp.  374— 
390;  Hart's  "Source  Book,"  pp.  387-390. 

2.  Why  were  the  problems  raised  by  the  acquisition  of  the 
Philippines  different  from  those  raised  by  the  acquisition  of  the 
Louisiana  Territory,  Florida,  and  the  territory  ceded  to  this  country 
by  Mexico  at  the  close  of  the  Mexican  War  ? 


CHAPTER  XXX 

ADVANCES   IN  POPULAR   EDUCATION 

In  the  midst  of  reconstruction  in  the  South,  the  de 
velopment  of  industry  and  commerce,  the  settlement  of  the 
Far  West,  and  management  of  foreign  politics,  the  American 
people  never  once  lost  sight  of  the  fact  that  education  was 
essential  to  the  success  of  democratic  government.  Indeed, 
in  the  second  year  of  the  Civil  war,  Congress  enacted  the 
Morrill  Law  providing  endowments  for  higher  education 
throughout  the  Union,  and  with  every  new  state  in  the  West 
schools  and  colleges  appeared.  No  aspect  of  education  was 
neglected.  Elementary  schools  were  increased  in  number, 
facilities  for  training  teachers  were  enlarged,  high  schools 
were  founded,  and  colleges  multiplied.  The  tasks  were 
heavy  and  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  universal  education 
were  great ;  so  progress  in  spite  of  splendid  labors  on  the 
part  of  public  officers  and  teachers  was  necessarily  slow. 

I.   THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES 

The  Situation  in  1880.  —  It  was  a  long  time  before  even 
elementary  education  was  within  the  reach  of  a  great  ma 
jority  of  the  children.  In  1880,  only  ten  million  of  the 
sixteen  million  children  of  school  age  in  the  country  were 
enrolled  in  the  schools,  and  the  average  daily  attendance 
was  far  less  than  half  the  total  number.  About  one  out 
of  every  five  of  the  voters  of  the  United  States  could  not 
read.  It  was  estimated  that  not  fewer  than  four  million 

557 


558        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

out  of  the  ten  million  voters  were  so  poorly  educated  that 
they  were  unable  to  read  intelligently  the  common  news 
papers  of  the  day. 

Much  of  this  illiteracy  was  in  the  South,  where  special 
problems  had  arisen  as  a  result  of  the  freeing  of  the 
slaves.  The  North,  however,  was  in  a  way  more  open  to 
criticism ;  with  two  thirds  of  the  population  it  had  about 
one  third  of  the  illiteracy.  When  we  remember  that  the 
North  was  much  richer  than  the  South,  we  are  compelled 
to  say  that  it  neglected  its  duties  and  could  not  plead 
poverty  as  a  reason.  Yet  in  every  section  earnest  and 
able  men  and  women  were  laboring  with  great  zeal  to  in 
crease  the  number  of  common  schools  and  to  secure  more 
trained  teachers. 

Forty  Years  of  Progress.  --In  the  country  as  a  whole, 
great  progress  has  been  made  in  the  elementary  schools 
in  the  past  forty  years.  In  1916  over  three  fourths 
of  the  children  of  school  age  in  the  United  States  were 
enrolled  in  the  common  schools,  and  three  fourths  of  those 
enrolled  were  in  actual  attendance.  Even  then  the  serious 
problem  of  illiteracy  was  not  solved,  for  there  were  still 
millions  of  people  —  eight  per  cent  of  the  total  population 
over  ten  years  of  age  —  who  could  not  read  or  write. 
The  difficulties  of  universal  education  were  increased  by 
the  constant  arrival  of  foreigners  from  countries  like  Russia 
and  Serbia,  where  about  four  fifths  of  the  population  over 
ten  years  of  age  could  not  read  or  write. 

Changes  in  the  Attitude  toward  Free  Schools.  —  During 
this  period  there  occurred  an  important  change  in  the  spirit 
of  the  public-school  system.  In  the  early  days  of  the  com 
mon  schools  many  people,  as  we  have  seen,  looked  upon 
them  as  charitable  institutions  for  the  poor.  Within  a  few 
decades  this  spirit  of  contempt  for  them  disappeared  every 
where,  and  the  people  came  to  regard  education  as  a  right 


ADVANCES  IN  POPULAR  EDUCATION 


559 


to  which  every  child  in  the  United  States  was  entitled  by 
virtue  of  citizenship. 

The  Rapid  Growth  of  High  Schools. — While  the  oppor 
tunities  for  elementary  education  were  being  increased,  a 
new  and  special  effort  was  made  to  give  to  all  children  a 
chance  to  learn  more  than  the  rudiments  offered  in  the 


STUDENTS  STUDYING  IN  THE  GREENHOUSE,  WASHINGTON  IRVING  HIGH  SCHOOL, 

NEW  YORK  CITY 


graded  schools.  A  rapid  growth  of  public  high  schools 
was  the  result.  At  the  end  of  President  Grant's  admin 
istration,  in  1877,  there  were  only  about  one  hundred 
thousand  pupils  in  high  schools  in  the  United  States. 
Three  fourths  of  them  were  in  private  high  schools, 
and  only  one  fourth  in  those  supported  by  public  funds. 
Within  four  decades  there  were  over  eleven  thousand  pub- 


560        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

lie  high  schools  in  the  country  with  more  than  a  million 
students,  while  the  enrollment  in  the  private  high  schools 
was  about  one  hundred  fifty  thousand.  Moreover,  the 
education  offered  in  the  public  high  schools  was  in  many 
respects  in  advance  of  the  curriculum  offered  in  the 
colleges  half  a  century  before. 

The  State-supported  Colleges.  -  -  To  complete  the  scheme 
of  education  it  was  necessary  to  establish  free  colleges 
and  universities  supported  at  public  expense.  To  the 
older  eastern  colleges  like  Harvard,  Princeton,  and  William 
and  Mary,  had  been  added  a  number  of  schools  in  the 
Western  States,  founded  principally  by  churches,  such 
as  Oberlin,  in  Ohio,  established  in  1833  by  the  Congre- 
gationalists,  and  Asbury,  now  De  Pauw,  in  Indiana,  founded 
by  the  Methodists  in  1837.  Although  the  early  land  grants 
for  the  support  of  education  in  the  Western  States  were 
for  colleges  as  well  as  common  schools,  only  a  few  states 
like  Michigan  and  Wisconsin  had  made  a  beginning  to 
ward  a  public  college  and  university  system  before  1860. 

The  Morrill  Act  (1862). — As  a  further  spur  to  educa 
tion  Congress,  in  1862,  passed  the  famous  "  Morrill  Act," 
which  set  aside  millions  of  acres  of  the  public  lands  to  be 
devoted  to  the  support  of  colleges  for  instruction  in  agri 
culture  and  mechanical  arts,  as  well  as  scientific  and 
classical  subjects.  These  lands  were  apportioned  among 
the  states  according  to  the  number  of  their  senators  and 
representatives  in  Congress.  Out  of  this  great  endowment 
were  developed  "  agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges  " 
in  every  state  in  the  Union.  In  many  instances  new  schools 
were  founded,  but  sometimes  aid  was  given  to  older  institu 
tions. 

In  the  meantime,  the  states  in  the  West  and  South 
were  establishing  colleges  supported  by  taxes  and  controlled 
by  public  officers.  By  1878,  Indiana,  Michigan,  Wis- 


ADVANCES   IN   POPULAR   EDUCATION  561 

consin,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Colorado,  California,  Illinois, 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  Oregon,  and  Washington  had  laid  the 
foundations  of  their  universities.  In  some  of  these  states 
(such  as  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  California),  the  agri 
cultural  college  was  combined  with  the  state  university. 
In  others  (for  example,  Indiana,  Michigan,  Iowa,  and  Kan 
sas)  separate  agricultural  colleges  were  built  up.  Many  of 
the  states,  however,  had  made  no  provision  for  state  uni 
versities,  and  in  several  cases  (for  instance,  Illinois,  Ohio, 
and  Maine)  the  agricultural  colleges  founded  as  a  result  of 
the  Morrill  Act  later  developed  into  state  universities. 


II.  THE  GROWTH  OF  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION;  EDUCA 
TIONAL  EXTENSION;  THE  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF 
WOMEN 

The  Demand  for  the  "  Practical  "  Studies.  -  -  The  signs 
of  the  new  era  in  education  were  to.  be  found  not  alone 
in  the  number  of  schools  and  colleges.  Even  more  strik 
ing  were  the  changes  made  in  the  subjects  taught.  In 
the  old  days  studies  were  largely  confined  to  arithmetic, 
grammar,  history,  and  languages,  and  were  not  designed  to 
prepare  pupils  for  any  special  work  in  life.  As  the  notion 
of  "  education  for  everyone "  spread,  there  grew  up  a 
demand  for  a  "  practical  education  "  intended  to  fit  students 
for  agriculture,  household  management,  and  for  trades, 
professions,  and  occupations  in  our  wonderful  industrial 
life  as  well  as  for  citizenship. 

Reasons   for  the   Development   of  Vocational   Education.  - 
Several  causes  led  to  a  gradual  and  profound  change  in  the 
aims  and  purposes  of  education,  especially  in  the  colleges 
and  high  schools. 

I.  In  the  first  place,  the  great  development  of  industry 
that  has  been  so  frequently  referred  to  created  a  demand 
20 


562         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

for  technically  trained  men,  —  engineers,  draftsmen,  archi 
tects,  and  chemists.  Technical  schools  grew  up  very  rap 
idly  to  meet  this  demand. 

2.  The  Morrill  act  of  1862,  as  we  have  seen,  gave  rise  to  a 
large  number  of  agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges.     These 
grew  very   slowly   at   first,    for   after    all   little  was   really 
known  of  agricultural  science.     The  federal  government,  to 
meet  this  need,  established  in  1885  a  vast  system  of  "  agri 
cultural  experiment  stations,"  where  men  trained  in  chem 
istry  and  other  sciences  went  to  work  to  find  out  how  best 
to  raise  crops,  to  increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  to 
improve  the  various  breeds  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  swine, 
and  poultry.     Within  a  few  years,  information  was  available 
which  really  helped  the  farmer  to  get  more  from  his  land, 
and  then  the   agricultural   colleges   began  to  attract   large 
numbers  of  students.     A  demand  also  came  for  agricultural 
courses  in  the  high  schools  of  the  farming  districts,  and  even 
for  the  rudiments  of  agricultural  science  in  the  elementary 
rural  schools.     In  1917,  the  federal  government  instituted 
the  practice  of  voting  national  funds  in  aid  of  vocational 
education  in  the  high  schools  and  schools  of  similar  grade 
in  the  various  states. 

3.  In  1876  a  Centennial  Exposition  was  held  in  Philadel 
phia  celebrating  the  one-hundredth  anniversary  of  American 
independence.     People  from   all  over  the   country   flocked 
to  this  exposition.     Among  other  important  lessons,  many 
of    them    learned    for    the    first  time   what    the    countries 
of  northern  Europe,  —  particularly  Germany,  France,  Den 
mark,  and  Sweden,  -  -  were  doing  in  the  education  of  their 
children  for  the  practical  duties  of  life.     It  was  the  work 
in  "  manual  training  "  and  drawing  that  impressed  them 
most,  and  many  of  the  visitors  went  home  with  the  firm 
determination  to  have  the  schools  of  America  adopt  these 
newer  ideas  in  education.     The  first  manual-training  high 


ADVANCES  IN  POPULAR  EDUCATION  563 

school  was  opened  in  St.  Louis  in  1880,  under  the  prin- 
cipalship  of  Calvin  Woodward,  who  is  recognized  as  the 
pioneer  in  this  movement  in  our  country. 

Educational  Extension. -- There  was  little  danger,  how 
ever,  that  American  education  would  become  entirely  "  prac 
tical  "  in  character,  because  all  sorts  of  new  agencies  for 
spreading  general  education  among  the  people  had  de 
veloped  before  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century.  These 
included  popular  lecture  systems,  such  as  that  supported  by 
public  funds  in  New  York  City,  which  provides  for  evening 
lectures  for  the  people  on  all  the  themes  of  literature,  history, 
and  science.  In  addition,  universities  and  colleges  offered 
extension  and  correspondence  work,  carrying  everywhere 
the  messages  of  higher  education  to  the  people.  Institutes 
were  founded  in  all  sections  to  help  teachers  and  farmers 
prepare  themselves  to  do  better  work. 

The  Public  Libraries.  —  Closely  connected  with  these  ac 
tivities  was  the  rapid  spread  of  public  libraries,  until  it  was 
a  poor  town  or  village  indeed,  at  least  in  the  North,  which, 
at  the  opening  of  the  twentieth  century,  did  not  have  a 
small  library  within  reach  of  its  inhabitants.  Where  such 
local  supplies  were  wanting,  state  libraries  sometimes 
stepped  in  and  provided  "  circulating  book  boxes,"  thus 
making  the  best  books  of  the  day  accessible  even  to  the 
inhabitants  in  the  most  out-of-the-way  districts.  With 
extension  systems,  circulating  libraries,  and  cheap  news 
papers,  magazines,  and  books,  it  became  possible  even  for 
the  humblest  of  the  land  to  have  a  knowledge  of  the  world 
and  its  work. 

The  Community  Center.  -  -  Then  came  the  community 
center  plan  for  making  the  public  school  building  the 
place  around  which  the  public  life  of  the  community 
revolves.  There  the  children  of  the  people  are  educated. 
There  provision  is  made  for  play  and  recreation,  particularly 


564        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

for  the  children  of  the  crowded  districts  of  the  great  city? 
who  are  otherwise  compelled  to  play  upon  the  streets. 
There  halls  are  provided  where  the  adults  can  go  to  read,  to 


CHILDREN'S  ROOM  IN  THE  NEW  YORK  PUBLIC  LIBRARY 

play  games,  to  listen  to  lectures,  or  to  enter  into  the  discus 
sion  of  the  problems  of  citizenship. 

Additional  Services  Assumed  by  the  Schools.  —  It  is  impos 
sible  to  name  here  all  the  other  achievements  in  education 
during  the  last  half  century  —  better  sanitation,  heating, 
and  lighting  for  the  schools ;  better  fire  protection ;  more 
beautiful  surroundings ;  the  inspection  of  the  health  of 
the  pupils ;  school  nurses ;  separate  classes  for  backward 
pupils  ;  gymnastic  courses  ;  supervised  playgrounds  ;  courses 
in  art ;  and  instruction  in  care  of  the  body. 

Higher  Education  for  Women.  Fassar  College  (1865).  —  It 
was  not  until  1865  that  a  woman's  college  with  ample  funds 


ADVANCES  IN  POPULAR  EDUCATION  565 

-  Vassar  College  —  was  established,  by  Matthew  Vassar, 
at  Poughkeepsie,  New  York.  Those  who  organized  this 
school  decided  first  of  all  that  there  should  be  a  woman's 
college  in  the  East  with  standards  as  high  as  those  pre 
vailing  in  the  best  men's  colleges.  When  this  new  college 
was  announced,  the  New  York  Evening  Post  said  :  "  No 
institution  of  note  has  yet  ventured  to  admit  females  much 
further  than  into  the  mysteries  of  the  rudiments." 

Women  in  the  State  Universities  of  the  West.  --With  the 
establishment  of  Vassar  College,  education  for  women  be 
came  more  respectable.  Those  who  had  scoffed  at  it  before 
began  to  take  it  more  seriously.  Wisconsin,  by  a  law 
enacted  in  1867,  admitted  women  to  the  normal  depart 
ment  of  the  college;  in  1870  the  University  of  Michigan, 
opened  in  1841,  admitted  them  to  the  regular  courses. 
Before  1890  all  of  the  western  state  universities  were  opened 
to  women  on  the  same  terms  as  to  men. 

Advance  in  East  and  South.  —  Between  1875  and  1895 
many  new  women's  colleges  were  opened  in  the  East,  in 
cluding  Smith,  in  Massachusetts,  Barnard,  connected  with 
Columbia  University,  in  New  York,  and  Bryn  Mawr,  in 
Pennsylvania.  By  1917  all  the  Southern  state  universities, 
except  Virginia,  Georgia,  and  Florida  (which  has  a  separate 
women's  college),  were  open  to  women. 

Professional  Education  for  Women.  —  When  they  began 
to  consider  the  question  of  training  for  the  professions, 
such  as  law  and  medicine,  women  encountered  more  op 
position  than  they  had  met  in  their  effort  to  secure  an 
ordinary  college  education.  The  advocates  of  professional 
education  for  women  were  not  discouraged,  and  in  1858 
they  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  Boston  Medical 
School  for  Women  founded.  Within  five  years  there  were 
more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  women  practicing  medi 
cine.  In  time  medical  schools  for  men  began  to  admit 


566         THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

women.  In  1893  one  of  the  leading  medical  schools  in 
the  country,  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  Baltimore, 
opened  its  doors  to  them.  The  example  of  this  great  school 
was  followed  by  the  announcement,  in  1916,  that  Columbia 
University  would  admit  women  to  its  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons.  The  progress  of  women's  education  in  law 
was  much  slower ;  and  the  law  schools  of  some  of  the 
largest  universities  are  still  closed  to  them. 


III.   OTHER  EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES 

Newspapers  and  Development  in  the  Art  of  Printing.  —  No 
account  of  popular  education  in  the  United  States  would  be 
complete  if  the  newspapers  and  magazines  were  left  out  of 
consideration.  In  1853  there  was  introduced  the  "web- 
press,"  which  printed  by  means  of  rapidly  revolving  cylin 
ders,  drawing  the  paper  from  a  long  roll  containing  two 
or  three  miles  of  paper  in  one  piece.  Instead  of  a  few 
thousand  copies  an  hour,  this  new  machine  could  turn  out 
a  hundred  thousand  or  more  copies  an  hour  at  a  slight 
cost  per  copy.  For  many  years,  however,  type  was  set  by 
hand.  About  1900  a  fast  typesetting  machine,  enabling 
one  man  to  do  the  work  of  eight  or  ten,  was  introduced. 
In  the  old  days  cuts  or  plates  from  which  pictures  were 
printed  were  laboriously  made  by  hand  on  wood  or  copper; 
but  about  1880  devices  for  making  plates  quickly  and 
cheaply  were  invented,  making  it  possible  for  papers  to 
print  pictures  illustrating  their  news  "  stories." 

The  result  of  these  inventions  was  a  rapid  increase  in  the 
number  of  newspapers  and  in  the  circulation  of  the  dailies 
of  the  cities.  By  1915  there  were  26,000  American  news 
papers  out  of  a  total  of  62,000  published  in  the  world, 
and  there  were  many  papers  that  issued  from  a  quarter  of 
a  million  to  nearly  a  million  copies  daily.  In  1882,  the 


ADVANCES   IN  POPULAR   EDUCATION  567 

American  Associated  Press  was  founded  to  collect  news  in 
all  parts  of  the  world  and  telegraph  it  instantly  to  news 
papers.  Thus  within  a  few  hours  events  everywhere  in  the 
world  are  brought  to  the  attention  of  everybody  for  a 
penny  or  two. 

The  Illustrated  Papers.  —  Before  the  Civil  War  there  had 
been  only  a  few  illustrated  papers,  such  as  Leslie's  Weekly 
Magazine  and  Illustrated  Newspaper  and  Harper's  Weekly, 
During  the  war,  the  New  York  Herald  surprised  newspaper 
readers  everywhere  by  bringing  out  in  its  morning  edition 
maps  of  the  previous  day's  battle.  It  was  regarded  as 
a  great  feat  of  newspaper  enterprise.  A  little  later  the 
cartoon  as  a  remarkable  form  of  picture  writing  came  into 
common  use.  There  had  been  cartoons  in  pamphlets  and 
magazines  in  the  eighteenth  and  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  but  it  was  not  until  about  1880  that  it  became  a 
practice  for  the  leading  papers  to  set  forth  striking  events 
in  the  form  of  serious  or  comic  pictures.  Great  Sunday 
newspapers  containing  from  twenty-four  to  seventy-two 
pages  were  the  next  striking  development.  They  speedily 
drove  almost  out  of  the  field  the  old-fashioned  weekly. 

The  Growth  of  the  Magazines.  -  -  The  most  serious  educa 
tional  work  of  the  publishers  has  been  done  through  the 
magazine.  At  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  were 
special  journals  devoted  to  every  subject  in  which  any 
considerable  number  of  people  had  any  interest :  science, 
education,  politics,  music,  art,  theater,  inventions,  trades, 
dentistry,  medicine,  law,  engineering,  sports,  literature, 
agriculture,  labor,  woman  suffrage,  and  religion,  to  mention 
only  a  few  of  the  most  important.  To  these  were  added 
reviews  of  current  events  and  important  articles.  There  are 
now  more  than  two  million  regular  purchasers  of  monthly 
magazines,  while  one  of  the  weeklies  claims  more  than  two 
million  buyers. 


568        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

In  1891  a  law  was  passed  making  it  impossible  for  Ameri 
can  publishers  to  take  copyrighted  articles  out  of  English 
papers  without  paying  for  them.  This  helped  to  create  a 
demand  for  American  writers,  and  contributed  powerfully  to 
the  growth  of  "Americanism"  in  our  papers  and  magazines. 

The  old,  established  monthlies,  like  The  Atlantic,  Harper's, 
The  Century,  Scribner's,  and  The  North  American  Review, 
continued  to  give  a  distinct  tone  to  our  intellectual  life. 

The  Popular  Magazine.  —  Before  long  there  appeared  the 
"  popular  "  magazine,  full  of  stories  and  pictures  and  sold 
at  a  low  price.  In  this  field  S.  S.  McClure  was  a  pioneer. 
He  had  traveled  widely  among  the  plain  people  of  the 
small  towns  and  country  regions  of  the  United  States,  and 
he  knew  their  tastes.  In  1893  he  published  a  magazine  to 
sell  at  ten  cents.  Through  it  he  carried  to  the  people, 
far  from  the  great  cities,  pictures  of  distinguished  men  and 
women,  historic  events  and  stories  of  the  deeds  of  the 
mighty.  Thus  farmers  and  their  families  came  to  know 
the  faces  of  the  greatest  generals,  politicians,  and  actresses, 
and  to  learn  about  the  doings  of  the  world's  celebrated 
personages. 

About  1897,  when  the  people  were  aroused  over  the 
actions  of  the  great  trusts  and  the  politicians  of  the  cities 
(see  page  574),  Mr.  McClure  began  to  publish  articles 
attacking  the  Standard  Oil  Company  and  other  big  indus 
trial  concerns  and  also  the  political  "  bosses  "  of  the  cities. 
Writers,  like  Lincoln  Steffens  and  Ida  Tarbell,  stirred 
the  country  with  tales  about  the  wrongdoing  of  many 
capitalists  and  politicians.  The  Cosmopolitan,  Munsey  s, 
Everybody' s,  Collier'1  s,  and  others  published  stories  of  the 
same  character,  and  an  age  of  "muckraking"  or  bitter 
criticism  of  things  American  was  ushered  in.  This  had  a 
deep  influence  on  politics,  for  these  magazines  sold  by 
the  millions. 


ADVANCES   IN   POPULAR   EDUCATION  569 

The  Chautauqua.  --  Undoubtedly  the  popular  magazines 
stimulated  an  interest  among  the  people  in  more  serious 
study.  Out  of  this  have  come  the  famous  Chautauquas 
and  university  extension  movements.  The  former  was 
established  in  1874  by  Lewis  Miller  of  Akron,  Ohio,  and 
Bishop  John  H.  Vincent  of  the  Methodist  Church.  It 
began  as  a  sort  of  Sunday  school  and  then  broadened  out, 
carrying  to  the  people  lecturers  and  books  on  literature, 
art,  science,  travel,  world  movements,  and  social  ques 
tions.  In  1879  Chautauqua  literary  and  scientific  circles 
were  organized  to  afford  people  an  opportunity  to  study 
systematically  at  home.  An  "  assembly  "  was  formed  at 
Chautauqua,  New  York,  where  a  few  weeks  in  the  year 
lectures  and  courses  of  instruction  by  distinguished  author 
ities  were  given.  In  time  came  the  establishment  of  the 
Chautauqua  circuits  or  series  of  meetings  in  hundreds  of 
hamlets  and  towns  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  Chau 
tauqua  system  has  done  more  than  anything  else  to 
promote  the  idea  of  summer  education,  winter  home  study 
by  correspondence,  and  cooperation  in  public  improvements 
among  the  people.  Thus  the  gateways  to  knowledge  are 
wider  open  than  ever  before  in  the  history  of  the  world. 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.  What  opportunities  for  education  do  you  have  that 
your  fathers  and  mothers  did  not  have  ?  2.  What  is  meant  by 
"illiteracy"  ?  State  some  of  the  reasons  why  there  was  so  much 
illiteracy  in  this  country  in  1880  in  spite  of  the  growth  of  free 
schools.  3.  What  important  change  took  place  in  the  attitude 
of  the  people  toward  free  schools  in  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century  ?  Why  is  it  important  that  the  children  of  both  the  rich 
and  the  poor  should  attend  the  free,  public  schools  ?  4.  About 
how  many  boys  and  girls  attended  high  schools  in  1877  ?  In 
1913  ?  What  important  difference  took  place  between  these 


570        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

years  in  the  kind  of  high  schools  which  most  of  these  pupils  at 
tended  ?  5.  How  were  colleges  chiefly  supported  and  controlled 
in  the  earlier  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  ?  What  was  the 
Morrill  Act  of  1862  and  why  was  it  important  ? 

II.  I.    What  is   meant  by   vocational  education  ?       2.    Why 
did  the  development  of  industry  create  a  demand  for  a  new  kind 
of  education?       3.    In  what  year  were  the  agricultural  experi 
ment  stations  established  ?     What  is  the  purpose  of  these  stations  ? 
4.    How  did  the  Centennial  Exposition  of  1876  call  the  people's 
attention  to  the  need  of  a  more  practical  education  ?       5.    What 
is  meant  by  educational  extension  ?     How  did  the  development 
of  public  libraries  help  the  work  of  the  schools  ?        6.    What   is 
meant  by  using  the  school  buildings   as  "community  centers"? 
7.    What  have  the  public  schools  done  for  the  people  in  addition 
to  giving  instruction  to  children  ?     8.    Why  was  the  establishment 
ofVassar  College  in  1865  so  important?       9.    In  what  section  of 
the  country  was  rapid  progress  first  made  in  the  higher  education 
of   women  ?     At    about    what    time  ?       10.    What    professional 
schools  were  first  opened  to  women  ? 

III.  I.    What   invention  led    to   the    rapid    growth   of   news 
papers   and   magazines  ?       2.    In    what    way  have    the   popular 
magazines  served  to  educate  the  people  ?       3.    What  is  meant  by 
the  Chautauqua  movement,  and  how  has  it  rendered  service  to 
the  cause  of  education  ? 


PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Give  as  many  reasons  as  you  can  for  supporting  elementary 
schools    at    public    expense.     For    supporting    high    schools    and 
colleges  at  public  expense. 

2.  Find  out  when  the  first  high  school  in  your  town  or  city  was 
established.      Find  where  the  stp.te  agricultural  college  of   your 
state  is  located,  when  it  was  establish  :d,  and  what  different  kinds 
of  service  it  gives  to  the  farmers  of  the  state.     If  your  state  sup 
ports  a  university  find  when  it  was  established  and  how  it  came 
to  be  established. 

3.  Discuss  in  class  the  way  in  which  the  following  agencies 
work  together  to  educate  the  people :    schools,  newspapers,  mag 
azines,  public  libraries,  art  museums,  churches,  public  lectures. 


OUTLINE    FOR    REVIEW  571 

OUTLINE  FOR  REVIEW  OF  THE  FIFTY  YEARS  OF  PROGRESS  (CHAP 
TERS  XXIII,  XXIV,  XXV,  XXVI,  XXVII,  XXVIII,  XXIX, 
XXX 

I.    The  rise  of  the  New  South. 

A.  The  situation  at  the  close  of  the  Civil  War. 

B.  The  reconstruction  of  the  planting  system. 

C.  The  development  of  farming. 

D.  The  Industrial  Revolution  in  the  South. 
II.    The  growth  of  the  Far  West. 

A.  The  Far  West  in  1860. 

B.  New  Western  states  and  territories. 

C.  The  problem  of  the  public  land. 

III.  The  triumph  of  industry. 

A.  The  development  of  mining  and  manufacturing. 

B.  The  development  of  transportation  :  railroads  and  ships. 

C.  The  army  of  industry  :    inventors,  business  men,  wage- 

earners. 

D.  The  results  of  industrial  development. 

1.  Development  of  the  export  trade. 

2.  Disappearance  of  the  frontier. 

3.  Business  and  industry  gain  on  farming. 

4.  The  growth  of  the  cities. 

5.  Evils  of  industrial  development. 

IV.  Immigration. 

A.  Principal  sources  of  immigration  before  1890. 

1.  Early  immigration. 

2.  Immigration  after  1865. 

B.  Later  changes  in  immigration. 

1.  The  influx  from  Southern  Europe. 

2.  Settlement  of  immigrants  in  the  cities. 

3.  The  enormous  increase  in  immigration. 

4.  Many  immigrants  not  permanent. 

C.  Efforts  to  restrict  immigration. 
V.    Combinations  of  capital  and  labor. 

A.  Competition  leads  to  the  formation  of  "trusts." 

B.  The  results  of  combinations  of  capital. 

1.  The  "soulless"  corporation. 

2.  Protective  organizations  of  employees. 


572         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

3.    Employers'  organizations. 

C.  The  great  strikes. 

D.  The  rise  of  Socialism. 
VI.    Parties  and  political  issues. 

A.  The  Republican  and  Democratic  parties. 

B.  The  tariff  and  income-tax  issues. 

C.  The  currency  problem. 

D.  Other  political  problems  and  issues. 
VII.    Foreign  affairs. 

A.  Controversies  with  Great  Britain. 

B.  Controversy  with  Germany  over  Samoa. 

C.  The  Hawaiian  question. 

D.  The  growth  of  foreign  trade. 

VIII.    The  Spanish-American  war  and  the  Boxer  difficulties. 

A.  The  Cuban  revolt  and  the  destruction  of  the  Maine. 

B.  The  war  with  Spain. 

C.  The  results  of  the  war. 

D.  Military  activities  in  China. 

E.  Imperialism  a  political  issue. 
IX.    Advances  in  popular  education. 

A.  Development  of  schools  and  colleges. 

B.  The  growth  of  vocational  education. 

C.  Educational  extension. 

D.  The  higher  education  of  women. 

E.  Other  educational  agencies. 

Important  names: 

Presidents:  Johnson,  1865-1869;  Grant,  1869-1877;  Hayes, 
1877-1881;  Garfield  and  Arthur,  1881-1885;  Cleveland,  1885- 
1889;  Harrison,  1889-1893;  Cleveland,  1893-1897;  McKinley, 
1897-1901. 

Other  Political  Leaders :  Tilden,  Blaine,  Bryan. 

Inventors :  Edison,  Bell,  Wilbur  and  Orville  Wright. 

Labor  Leaders:  Debs,  Gompers. 

Leaders  of  Business  and  Industry :  Rockefeller,  Carnegie,  Morgan. 

Military  and  Naval  Leaders:  Dewey,  Sampson,  Schley,  Shafter. 

Important  dates  :   1877,  1894,  1898. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

THE  NEW  DEMOCRACY 

I.   CAUSES  OF  INCREASING  INTEREST  IN  THE  MACHINERY 
OF  GOVERNMENT 

1.  Popular  Education.  --In  the  closing  years  of  the  nine 
teenth  century,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  men  and 
women    alike,    learned    more   about    the   government    than 
ever  before  in  the  history  of  our  country.     As  a  result  of 
the  spread   of  education,    more   citizens    read    newspapers, 
magazines,    and    books.     The   news   of  events,    great    and 
small,  was  easily  scattered  throughout  the  land  by  the  press, 
telegraph,   and  telephone,  so  that  no  part  of  the   country 
could  long  be  ignorant  of  what  was  happening  in  other  sec 
tions. 

2.  Wrongdoing  on  the  Part  of  Public  Officers.  --In  the  era 
of  great  business  enterprise  which  followed  the  Civil  War, 
government  officers  were  often  allowed  to  do  wrongful  acts 
without    interference    from    the    citizens.     Sometimes    the 
city  councils  were  bribed  to  sell  cheaply  or  even  give  away 
to  companies  the   right  to  build  street  railways  or  water 
works  or  other  public  utilities.      Members  of  state    legis 
latures  frequently  made  laws  favorable  to  private  persons 
and  companies  in  return  for  payments  of  money.     It  was  a 
common  occurrence  for  railway  companies  to  get  valuable 
lands  away  from  the  government  in  return  for  very  small 
service.      Again,    contractors    doing    public  work,    such  as 
building    court   houses   and    bridges,  were   sometimes    per 
mitted  to  overcharge  and  so  rob  the  public  treasury. 


574        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

3.  Criticism  of   Faithless    Officials.  —  From   time   to    time 
criticism    of  negligent  officials  appeared   in   newspapers   or 
in    pamphlets.      Widespread   concern    about    the    evils    in 
American  government  was  especially  aroused  by  the  publi 
cation  in  1888  of  James  Bryce's  "The  American  Common 
wealth."      Bryce  was   an  English   student  of   government 
who  spent  several  years  in  the  United  States  and  then  wrote 
a  long  and   careful   account  of  his  observations.     He    did 
more  than  any  one  else  to  call  the  attention  of  the  American 
people  to  the  exact  way  in  which  their  affairs  were  managed 
and    especially   to   the  corruption   prevalent  in  cities.     Al 
though   some  Americans  were   deeply   annoyed  by  Bryce's 
book,  the  more  serious  people  said  that  we  should  profit  by 
his  criticism  and  endeavor  to  "  clean  house." 

4.  Problems  of   the  Cities.  —  Another  cause  of  increased 
interest  in  government  was  the  rapid  growth  of  large  cities. 
As  long   as  the   people   lived   in  the   country  and   supplied 
themselves  with  water  from  their  own  wells,  rode  to  market 
in  their  own  wagons  and  carriages,  lighted  their  houses  with 
oil  lamps,   and  shipped  goods  by  canal  boats  and  freight 
wagons,  there  was  little  need  for  the  government  to  interfere 
with  the  way  in  which  business  was  carried  on.     When  the 
most   important   public  enterprise  was  the  town  pump,   it 
did  not  require  very  much  attention  on  the  part  of  the  citi 
zens  to  keep  it  in  working  order. 

With  the  growth  in  population,  it  was  necessary  for  cities 
to  supply  their  residents  with  water,  gas,  electricity,  street 
cars,  and  many  other  services.  They  did  this  either  by 
building  plants  and  running  them,  or  by  chartering  com 
panies  to  do  the  work  under  the  general  supervision  of  the 
city  government.  Naturally,  as  the  welfare  of  men,  women, 
and  children  came  to  depend  in  a  large  part  on  what  the 
government  did,  citizens  were  forced  to  think  a  good  deal 
more  about  government. 


THE   NEW   DEMOCRACY  575 

5.  The  Education  and  Employment  of  Women.  —  A  fifth 
cause  of  increased  popular  concern  in  politics  was  the  edu 
cation  of  women,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  employment  of 
them  in  larger  numbers  in  offices,  stores,  and  factories,  on 
the  other.  As  common  schools  and  high  schools  were  multi 
plied  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land,  and 
girls  were  given  the  same  opportunity  as  boys  to  learn,  they 
began  to  read  the  same  magazines  and  newspapers.  In 
the  factories  and  stores  and  mills,  they  found  that  they 
were  working  just  as  men  were,  and  that  all  the  regula 
tions  to  safeguard  the  health  and  safety  of  employees 
affected  them.  Even  the  women  who  did  not  go  out  to 
work,  but  lived  in  their  homes  and  took  care  of  children, 
were  also  interested  in  the  new  order  of  things.  They  saw 
that  the  character  of  the  schools,  the  kind  of  water  or  gas 
supplied,  or  the  cleanliness  of  the  public  markets  depended 
upon  the  way  that  government  officers  performed  their 
duties.  So  women  at  home  and  out  of  the  home,  in 
colleges,  schools,  factories,  and  clubs,  began  to  read  about 
government  and  to  discuss  public  affairs. 


II.    CIVIL-SERVICE    REFORM;   THE    AUSTRALIAN    BALLOT; 
THE  INITIATIVE  AND  REFERENDUM 

Civil-Service  Reform  in  the  States  and  Cities.  — As  a 
result  of  this  increase  in  public  interest  many  reforms  in 
the  machinery  of  government  were  brought  about  during  the 
last  half  century  —  one  of  the  earliest  being  in  the  civil 
service. 

The  "  spoils  system"  presented  such  glaring  evils  that  one 
is  surprised  to  learn  how  long  it  endured.  Many  independ 
ent  people  criticized  it  from  the  beginning,  and,  as  we  have 
seen,  they  were  able  in  1883  to  secure  a  change  in  the  civil 
service  of  the  federal  government.  In  the  same  year  the 


576        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


i    ll 

t«     C      -, 


.11    1 


Og*         o     g      H     S      «     g-  H  g      »       *      *     g  E°          |  E  | 

an  a  a  an  nan  D  a    DDOOODD  nan  a 


li 


O 


I"  pi  MBS  ;p|  JM 

I  £j  jj  s  I  *  §g|  g-g  1  i " 


a  a  a  n  an  ana  ana  DDD  a  an  a  p  D  a 


O  *D  D£  D   D"  DD*  ODD*  D  D^    D  DDD  D  D  D   D  D  D   D 


!*  SHi !  S  I-  s-  Is 

^  ISHIS    sfl   3i 


OS«      agaKC|-SrtgM^BgP83^|        «      rt  S      °      we«">      tag 

a  p  D  D  an  DDD  ana  ODD  DDD  ODD  a 


ei 


^-.    |S'e;«§e«|iiE-§a§gS|gg^     B  "3   S          S     R     SiEKS     3  f 

U  DD'D  a  an  DDD'D  a    D  DDD  an  a  DDD  a 

2=  §§  ,   I'    g     ij     i        ,  I  c  i. 


SilLiEl 


=  cei  H 


!jl    I    Ipj-I^ri 

"^^Mrii'y 


¥i!if1f! 

O»j        -<c.b.ccg~g^|j<:;«Cg°C|r       S        5P  H       ?       325?       «1|» 

aa'n  D  DD  ODD' a  a    nnaDana  ODD  a 


Sir   : 


LI  IS 


THE  NEW  DEMOCRACY  577 

state  of  New  York  passed  a  law  providing  that  a  very 
large  number  of  public  employees  in  the  state,  county,  and 
city  governments  should  be  chosen  on  account  of  their 
ability  to  pass  certain  examinations  and  tests ;  and  further 
more,  that  they  should  hold  office  during  good  behavior. 
In  time  several  other  states  —  Massachusetts,  Wisconsin, 
and  Illinois,  for  example  —  adopted  civil-service  reform. 
The  new  system  now  prevails  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in 
many  states  and  more  than  two  hundred  cities.  For 
example,  the  eighty  or  ninety  thousand  employees  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  except  those  in  the  higher  positions, 
know  that  no  matter  who  wins  in  an  election  they  will  be 
able  to  go  on  with  their  work  unless  they  neglect  their 
duties. 

Ballot  Reform.  Evil  Election  Practices.  —  For  a  long  time 
it  was  customary  for  political  parties  to  print  their  own  bal 
lots,  and  as  a  rule,  each  party  selected  a  color  of  its  own. 
Thus,  for  example,  the  Republicans,  in  an  election,  would 
select  candidates  and  print  their  names  on  white  paper,  and 
the  Democrats  would  select  candidates  and  print  their 
names  on  a  red  ballot.  These  ballots  were  distributed  freely, 
and  if  any  man  wanted  to  vote  the  Republican  ticket  he 
simply  got  one  of  the  white  ballots,  walked  up  to  the  polls, 
and  dropped  it  into  the  ballot  box.  The  watchers, standing 
around  could  readily  see  what  ticket  he  voted.  It  was  pos 
sible  for  party  leaders  to  buy  up  voters,  and  be  sure  that 
they  voted  as  they  were  told.  A  good  deal  of  bribery  and 
intimidation  in  elections  was  the  natural  consequence. 

The  Australian  Ballot.  —  By  an  important  law  passed  in 
1888,  Massachusetts  introduced  for  the  first  time  in  an 
American  state  a  new  kind  of  ballot  known  as  the  "  Aus 
tralian  "  ballot,  after  the  country  in  which  it  was  first  used. 
Under  this  new  system  d)  the  government  prints  "  official  " 
ballots  for  all  elections ;  (2)  the  names  of  the  candidates  of 

2P 


578        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

all  parties  are  placed  on  the  same  ballot ;  (3)  the  ballots  can 
be  procured  only  at  the  polling  places  from  public  officers ; 
and  (4)  the  voter  must  mark  in  secret  the  names  of  the 
candidates  for  whom  he  votes.  Thus  it  is  very  difficult  for 
any  one  who  has  bribed  or  threatened  a  voter  to  be  sure 
that  "  the  goods  have  been  delivered."  This  reform,  along 
with  others  designed  to  purify  elections,  has  done  much 
to  drive  bribery  and  cheating  from  American  politics. 
Other  states  in  the  Union  followed  the  example  of  Massa 
chusetts,  and  at  the  opening  of  the  twentieth  century 
nearly  all  had  adopted  the  Australian  ballot  in  some  form. 

The  Initiative  and  Referendum.  —  Ballot  reform  had 
not  been  in  operation  very  long  before  some  citizens,  par 
ticularly  in  the  western  states,  began x  to  advocate  other 
changes  in  government.  Believing  that  the  legislatures  had 
passed  laws  which  the  people  did  not  want  and  had  refused 
to  pass  other  laws  which  they  did  want,  reformers  insisted 
that  the  voters  at  the  polls  should  have  a  chance  to  express 
their  opinions  on  laws  as  well  as  to  select  public  officers. 
They  adopted  a  plan  known  as  the  initiative  and  ref 
erendum,  in  use  in  Switzerland. 

The  initiative  permits  private  citizens  to  draw  up  a  bill, 
and,  on  securing  the  signatures  of  a  certain  percentage  of 
the  voters,  to  have  it  submitted  directly  to  all  the  voters  at 
an  election.  If  this  bill  proposed  by  the  initiative  receives 
a  sufficient  majority,  it  becomes  a  law. 

The  referendum  allows  citizens  who  do  not  like  an  act 
passed  by  the  legislature  to  get  up  a  petition  and  require 
the  submission  of  that  measure  to  the  voters  at  the  polls 
for  their  approval  or  rejection.  These  two  devices  consti 
tute  what  is  known  as  "  direct  government,"  because  they 
enable  the  voters  to  make  laws  directly,  without  the  inter 
vention  of  any  elected  officers  whatever. 

The  new  plan  was  adopted,  for  the  first  time  in  any  state, 


THE   NEW  DEMOCRACY  579 

by  South  Dakota,  in  1 898.  Four  years  later,  Oregon  followed 
the  example  of  South  Dakota.  Nevada  adopted  part  of  the 
plan  in  1905,  and  other  states  soon  followed  :  Montana,  Okla 
homa,  Michigan,  Maine,  Arkansas,  Colorado,  Arizona,  New 
Mexico,  California,  Ohio,  Nebraska,  Washington,  Idaho, 
and  North  Dakota.  While  these  states  were  adopting  the 
plan,  more  than  three  hundred  cities  put  it  into  effect  in  the 
making  of  ordinances  or  local  laws. 

The  Recall.  -  -  In  1904  a  new  scheme  for  securing  voters 
still  more  power,  known  as  the  "  recall,"  was  initiated  at 
Los  Angeles.  The  recall  permits  a  certain  percentage  of  the 
voters  (25  per  cent  in  Oregon)  who  are  dissatisfied  with  a 
public  officer  to  get  up  a  petition  against  him  at  any  time, 
and  compel  him  either  to  resign  or  to  submit  himself  at  a 
new  election  to  the  judgment  of  his  fellow  citizens.  The 
spread  of  this  reform  has  not  been  so  rapid  as  that  of  the 
initiative  and  referendum.  By  the  year  1916,  it  was  in 
force  in  only  eight  states  —  Washington,  California,  Oregon, 
Arizona,  Oklahoma,  Nevada,  Michigan,  and  Colorado.  It 
was  widely  applied,  however,  in  more  than  two  hundred 
city  governments  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 

III.   THE  COMMISSION  FORM  OF  CITY  GOVERNMENT;  RE 
FORMS  IN  POLITICAL  PARTIES  ;  THE  DIRECT  PRIMARY 

The  Rise  of  Commission  Government. — While  searching  for 
better  things  citizens  began  to  criticize  the  old-fashioned 
city  government  by  mayor  and  councilmen.  In  the  year 
1900  a  great  storm,  which  destroyed  a  large  portion  of  the  city 
of  Galveston,  Texas,  led  to  an  important  experiment.  A 
committee  of  citizens  drew  up  a  new  scheme  of  government 
abolishing  the  mayor  and  council  and  putting  the  whole 
management  of  public  business  into  the  hands  of  five  com 
missioners,  one  of  whom,  without  any  extra  powers,  was  to 


58° 


THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


serve  as  a  Mayor-President.  This  "  commission  "  plan 
was  shortly  afterward  put  into  force  in  Galveston,  and  in 
1908  it  was  adopted  by  the  city  of  Des  Moines,  Iowa.  From 
that  time  forward  the  spread  of  the  plan  was  rapid,  until 
by  1916  more  than  three  hundred  cities,  including  some 
of  the  first  rank,  such  as  St.  Paul,  Memphis,  Spokane,  Bir 
mingham,  Newark,  and  Buffalo,  had  adopted  it  in  one  form 
or  another. 

The  City  Manager  Plan.  —  The  commission  scheme  of  gov 
ernment  had  hardly  been  tested  before  an  addition  was 
made  to  it.  It  was  found  difficult  for  the  five  commissioners 

to  supervise  properly  all  the  de 
tails  of  the  city's  business  and 
some  one  suggested  that  they 


E    O    "P    L  E 


(  COMMISSION] 


should  elect  a  "  manager  "  to  do 
this  for  them.  So  the  commis 
sioner-manager  plan  was  devised. 
Under  this  scheme  the  commis 
sioners  merely  act  as  a  town  coun 
cil,  pass  ordinances,  vote  money, 
and  make  general  plans,  while 
COMMISSIONER-MANAGER  PLAN  tjie  actuaj  carrying  out  of  the 

OF    ClTY   GOVERNMEMT  .  . 

public  business  is  intrusted  to  a 

man  whom  they  choose,  known  as  the  city  manager.  The 
plan  was  adopted  in  1912  at  Sumter,  South  Carolina,  and 
later  by  larger  cities,  including  Springfield  and  Dayton, 
Ohio,  and  Phoenix,  Arizona. 

Evils  in  the  Management  of  Political  Parties.  —  Not  a  few 
of  the  evils  which  appeared  in  government  were  attributed 
by  critical  citizens  to  the  way  in  which  the  political 
parties  were  managed.  The  political  party  had  grown  up 
as  a  wholly  voluntary  society,  like  a  social  club  or  an 
association  for  some  special  purpose.  Party  members  were 
supposed  to  conduct  their  party  affairs  as  they  pleased. 


THE  NEW  DEMOCRACY  581 

It  was  thought  to  be  nobody's  business  how  they  elected 
the  chairman  and  other  officers  of  their  town,  city,  county, 
state,  and  national  committees.  Each  party  made  its 
own  plan  for  conducting  its  affairs  and  was  permitted 
to  select  candidates  for  local,  state,  and  national  offices  as 
it  saw  fit. 

Nominations  by  Conventions.  —  It  was  the  common  prac 
tice  until  the  early  part  of  the  twentieth  century  for  each 
party  to  select  its  officers  and  candidates  at  "  conventions." 
A  convention  was  merely  an  assembly  of  party  workers 
selected  by  the  party  voters  at  local  caucuses  or  meet 
ings.  For  example,  the  Republican  national  convention 
was  composed  of  four  delegates  "at  large"1  from  each 
state  and  two  delegates  from  each  congressional  district. 
Only  those  citizens  who  gave  a  great  deal  of  attention 
to  politics  attended  caucuses  and  conventions.  As  a  rule 
only  about  ten  or  twenty  per  cent  of  the  voters  in  each  of 
the  political  parties  took  any  interest  in  the  selection  of 
party  officers  and  party  candidates. 

The  Direct  Primary.  -  -  Those  who  had  time  to  spare  for 
politics  naturally  secured  the  party  offices  and  selected  the 
party  candidates.  They  became  known  as  the  "  bosses  "  or 
party  leaders.  When  things  went  wrong  in  the  govern 
ment,  they  were  attacked. 

A  demand  then  arose  that  the  party  convention  should 
be  abolished  and  the  "direct  primary"  substituted  for  it. 
Under  this  &  /stem,  the  voters  of  each  party  choose  at  the 
polls  their  leaders  and  candidates.  The  first  state  to  have 
a  general  direct  primary  was  Wisconsin,  which  adopted  it 
in  1903.  The  other  states  followed  rapidly,  and  by  1915 
nearly  all  the  states  had  given  up  the  convention  in  favor  of 
the  direct  primary. 

1  That  is,  the  four  were  not  chosen  one  from  each  of  four  districts  but 
simply  named  together  on  one  ticket. 


582         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

The  Popular  Election  of  United  States  Senators. — The  prog 
ress  of  "  direct  "  government  brought  a  demand  for  the 
election  of  United  States  Senators  by  popular  vote  instead 
of  by  the  state  legislatures.  This  reform  had  been  urged  in 
Congress  as  early  as  1826;  President  Johnson  had  advo 
cated  it  in  1868;  and  in  1893  the  House  of  Representatives 
had  passed  a  constitutional  amendment  for  direct  election, 
only  to  be  blocked  by  the  Senate.  Failing  to  make  head 
way  with  the  federal  amendment  the  advocates  of  the  new 
plan  worked  in  the  states,  applying  the  principle  of  the 
direct  primary  to  the  selection  of  candidates  for  the  United 
States  Senate,  in  some  instances  binding  the  legislatures  to 
accept  the  popular  choice.  By  1910  three  fourths  of  the 
states  nominated  candidates  for  the  United  States  Senate 
by  the  direct  primary.  The  next  year  both  houses  of  Con 
gress  passed  the  long-debated  constitutional  amendment. 
It  was  promptly  ratified  by  the  required  number  of  states 
and  on  May  31,  1913,  proclaimed  a  part  of  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States  as  the  Seventeenth  Amendment. 


IV.  WOMAN  SUFFRAGE 

Early  Hope  for  a  Federal  Amendment. — With  the  awak 
ening  interest  in  popular  government  there  came  a  re 
vival  of  the  agitation  for  woman  suffrage.  The  suffra 
gists,  as  we  have  seen,  were  defeated  in  their  attempt 
to  secure  an  amendment  to  the  federal  Constitution  giv 
ing  the  ballot  to  women  at  the  time  that  the  slaves  were 
emancipated  and  enfranchised.  Then  they  realized  that 
they  must  win  a  few  states  before  they  could  get  a  real 
hearing  at  the  national  capital. 

Suffragists  Turn  to  the  States.  -  -  The  first  state  campaign 
of  importance  opened  in  Kansas.  In  1861  the  right  to 
vote  in  school  elections  had  been  extended  there  to  women, 


THE  NEW  DEMOCRACY 


583 


and  six  years  later  the  proposition  to  grant  complete  suffrage 
was  submitted  to  the  voters.  In  this  campaign,  women 
speakers  traveled  day  and  night  over  miles  of  wild  prairie 
and  spoke  in  depots,  barns,  mills,  churches,  schoolhouses- 


PlONEERS   IN    THE   WOMAN    SUFFRAGE    MOVEMENT 

Seated  left  to  right:  Mrs.  Rebecca  B.  Spring,  Miss  Susan  B.  Anthony.      Stattding:  Mrs.  Caroline 
M.  Severance,  Mrs.  Charlotte  LeMoyne  Wills 

and  in  the  open  air  on  the  very  frontiers  of  civilization, 
wherever  a  few  people  could  be  brought  together.  The 
women  were  defeated,  but  they  secured  a  respectable  vote. 
Success  in  the  West.  -  -  Their  first  victory  was  not  until 
many  years  later.  As  a  territory  Wyoming  had  given 


584        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

women  the  vote  in  1869;  twenty  years  afterward,  in  1889, 
it  came  into  the  Union  as  the  first  state  with  equal  political 
rights  for  "all  male  and  female  citizens."  The  second  state 
to  enfranchise  women  was  Colorado.  After  years  of  agita 
tion  the  women  won  the  vote  in  1893.  The  third  state  was 
Utah.  Suffrage  had  been  granted  to  women  when  Utah  was 
a  territory,  but  Congress,  in  1887,  took  it  away  from  them. 
In  1896,  after  Utah  had  become  a  state,  it  established  once 
more  the  principle  of  equal  suffrage.  The  fourth  state  was 
Idaho,  which  gave  the  ballot  to  women  in  1896. 

Decline  and  Revival  in  the  Suffrage  Movement.  —  After  the 
adoption  of  woman  suffrage  in  Idaho  in  1896,  there  followed 
a  long  period  during  which  no  gains  were  made,  although  at 
least  twenty  campaigns  were  carried  on  in  various  sections  of 
the  Union.  In  1910,  however,  another  wave  of  enthusiasm 
for  woman  suffrage  began  to  sweep  the  cause  forward.  In 
that  year  the  state  of  Washington  gave  women  the  ballot.  In 
1911  California  was  added  to  the  suffrage  states.  In  1912 
three  more  states  granted  equal  suffrage  —  Oregon,  Arizona, 
and  Kansas.  In  1913  the  territory  of  Alaska  followed  their 
example,  and  the  legislature  of  Illinois  granted  women 
the  right  to  vote  for  a  large  number  of  offices,  including 
the  President  of  the  United  States.  The  next  year,  1914, 
Nevada  and  Montana,  and  in  1917,  New  York,  extended  the 
franchise  to  women,  thus  making  in  all  twelve  states  with 
full  suffrage,  and  a  thirteenth,  Illinois,  with  presidential  and 
limited  local  suffrage.  Some  other  states  also  enacted 
presidential  suffrage  laws.  While  making  these  great  gains, 
the  suffragists  were  defeated  in  several  eastern  states 
-Wisconsin,  Ohio,  Michigan,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
Maine,  and  Massachusetts. 

Suffrage  Agitation  at  Washington.  —  As  early  as  1868,  a 
proposition  to  establish  woman  suffrage  by  federal  amendment 
had  been  introduced  in  Congress,  and  in  January,  1878,  the  fa- 


THE  NEW  DEMOCRACY 


585 


mous  "  Susan  B.  Anthony  amendment  "  had  been  proposed 
by  Senator  Sargent  of  California  :  "  The  right  of  citizens  of 
the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  by  the  United 
States  or  by  any  state  on  account  of  sex."  The  women 
founded  the  National  Woman's  Suffrage  Association,  and 
every  year  after  1878  they  made  pilgrimages  to  Washington 


! 1  Full  Suffra 

I   *  I  Primary  Suffi 

F~n  Presidential  Suffrage 

tTTZj  Municipal  Suffrage 

I':..'..'  Presidential  &  Municipal  Suffrage 

Municipal  Suffrage  in  Charter  Cities 
HUH  School  Bond  or  Tax 
SHIS  \o  SMffrayr  for  Women 


Wms.  Eng.  Co.,   N.Y. 


Courtesy  of  "  The  Woman  Citizen  " 

SUFFRAGE  MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

with  petitions  and  arguments,  asking  for  the  passage  of 
their  amendment.  In  1913,  a  more  radical  suffrage  or 
ganization,  The  Congressional  Union,  came  into  the  field. 
The  newcomers  said  to  the  members  of  Congress  and  to  the 
President:  "If  you  do  not  p^ss  our  national  amendment, 
we  are  going  into  the  states  where  the  women  vote  and  ask 
them  not  to  return  you  to  office." 

Progress  of  the  Federal  Amendment.  —  In  the  campaign 
of  1916,  woman  suffrage  became  one  of  the  prominent 
issues.  The  Republican  party,  "as  a  measure  of  justice  to 
one  half  of  the  adult  population,"  favored  the  extension  of 


586        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

suffrage  to  women,  but  recognized  the  right  of  each  state 
to  settle  the  question  for  itself.  The  Democratic  party 
recommended  "  the  extension  of  the  franchise  to  the 
women  of  the  country  by  the  states  upon  the  same  terms 
as  to  men."  The  Republican  candidate,  Mr.  Hughes,  went 
beyond  his  platform  and,  in  an  open  letter,  indorsed  the 
granting  of  suffrage  by  the  federal  amendment,  but  Mr. 
Wilson,  who  had  announced  his  belief  in  woman  suffrage 
in  1915,  insisted  that  victory  should  be  won  state  by  state. 
The  growing  strength  of  the  women  voters  and  the  victory 
in  New  York  forced  the  passage  of  the  suffrage  amendment 
by  the  House  of  Representatives  on  January  10,  1918, 
President  Wilson,  at  last,  having  used  his  influence  in  its 
favor.  In  the  Senate,  however,  the  amendment  lacked  two 
votes  of  the  necessary  two-thirds.  The  amendment  was 
therefore  left  for  the  next  Congress. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.    In  what  way  did  the  development  of  free  schools  create 
a  demand  for  better  government  ?       2.    What  were  some  of  the 
evil  practices  that  had  crept  into  state  and  city  governments  ? 
3.    How  did  it  happen  that  Mr.   Bryce,   an   Englishman,   could 
have   had    so    large    an    influence   in   improving   government   in 
America  ?       4.    What  new  problems  of  government   came  with 
the  rapid  growth  of  the  cities?       5.    What  other  influences  led 
to  awakened  interest  of  the  people  in  governmental  matters  ? 

II.  i.    At   about  what  time    did    the   states   begin   to   adopt 
civil-service  reform  ?     In  what  ways  are  the  employees  of  state 
and   city  governments   better  off  under  civil  service  than  they 
were  before  these  reforms  ?       2.    Describe  the  older  method  of 
providing  ballots  for  elections.     What  were   the   dangers  in  the 
older  method  ?       3.    What  is  meant  by  the  "Australian  ballot"  ? 
What  is  meant  by  the  "secret  ballot"  ?     How  have  these  changes 
done    away   with   many   of  the   older   evils  ?       4.    Describe   the 
operation  of  an  initiative   and   referendum  law.     What  are  the 
advantages  of  such  a  law  ?     What  is  meant  by  the  "recall"  ? 

III.  i.    What  are  the  principal  differences  between  the  com- 


THE   NEW  DEMOCRACY  587 

mission  form  of  city  government  and  the  older  method  of  govern 
ing  cities  through  a  mayor  and  a  common  council  or  board  of 
aldermen?  2.  What  is  a  "city  manager"?  In  what  ways 
is  a  city  manager  like  a  city  superintendent  of  schools  ? 

IV.  I.    Describe    the    way    in    which    candidates    for    public 
offices  were  nominated  by  political  parties.     What  are  the  dangers 
in  this  system?       2.    What  is  meant   by  the   "direct  primary" 
election  ?     How  does  it  differ  from  other  elections  ? 

V.  I.    What  led  the  advocates  of  woman  suffrage  to  urge  the 
states  to   adopt   amendments  giving  women  the   right  to  vote  ? 
What  were  the  first  states  to  adopt  such  amendments  ?     In  how 
many  states  are  women  now  permitted  to  vote  for  all  important 
officers  of  the  government  ? 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  If  you  live  in  a  city,  find  out  whether  the  employees  of  the  city 
government  are  under  civil  service,  and  if  not  whether  they  are 
likely  to  lose  their  places  whenever  a  new  party  comes  into  power. 
If  you  live  in  a  small  town  or  village,   find  out  what  officers  are 
responsible  for  the  public  business  of  the  community  —  for  the 
roads,  sidewalks,  street  lights,  and  the  like. 

2.  Boards  of  aldermen  are  usually  elected  by  wards ;  that  is, 
each  ward  sends  one  or  more  people  to  represent  it  in  the  law- 
making  body  of  the  city.     Under  the  commission  form  of  city 
government,   the   commissioners   are   usually   chosen   "at  large," 
that  is,  without  reference  to  the  particular  districts  of  the  city  in 
which   they  happen   to  live.     Discuss   the   advantages   and   dis 
advantages  of  these  two  methods. 

3.  Organize  your  class  under  the  commission  form  of  govern 
ment,  using  the  Australian  ballot  system  for  electing  the  com 
missioners. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

THE  OPENING  OF  THE  NEW  CENTURY 

I.    ROOSEVELT'S  ADMINISTRATION;  THE  CONSERVATION 

MOVEMENT 

A  New  Type  of  Political  Leadership.  — With  the  inaugu 
ration  of  President  Roosevelt  after  the  assassination  of 
President  McKinley  in  September,  1901,  a  new  period 
in  the  political  history  of  the  United  States  opened.  For 
the  first  time  there  was  in  the  White  House  a  President 
who  discussed  with  great  vigor  and  earnestness  the  general 
questions  of  capital  and  labor,  riches  and  poverty,  which 
had  been  raised  by  the  industrial  progress  of  his  own 
day.  During  his  two  administrations,  Mr.  Roosevelt 
attacked  "  malefactors  of  great  wealth  "  who  grew  rich 
by  monopolies  or  cheated  the  public  by  various  fraudulent 
schemes,  and  he  denounced  also  "  false  labor  leaders  " 
who  induced  trade  unions  to  commit  acts  of  violence  in 
times  of  strikes  and  labor  disputes.  He  advocated  taxing 
incomes  and  the  inheritances  of  the  rich,  largely  for  the 
purpose  of  leveling  down  some  of  the  great  inequalities 
in  wealth.  He  was  especially  earnest  in  his  demand  that 
the  forests,  minerals,  and  other  natural  resources  of  the 
country,  which  had  been  so  lavishly  used  by  individuals 
and  companies,  should  be  conserved  for  the  generations 
to  come. 

The  Conservation  Movement.  Leading  Advocates.  — 
Thoughtful  men  on  the  western  frontier  had  long  wanted  to 

588 


THE  OPENING  OF  THE  NEW  CENTURY 


589 


transform  vast  desert  areas  into  gardens  by  water  from 
the  mountains.  John  Wesley  Powell,  who  had  explored 
the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado,  early  advocated  the 
construction  of  large  dams  for  storing  water  from  the 


vl 


PRESIDENT  ROOSEVELT  DISCUSSING  NATIONAL  QUESTIONS 

mountain  streams  so  that  it  could  be  slowly  fed  out  to 
the  plains.  F.  H.  Newell,  who  was  also  in  the  govern 
ment  service,  pointed  out  the  importance  of  taking  care 
of  the  forests  on  the  mountain  sides,  in  order  to  hold  the 
soil  and  prevent  the  spring  freshets  from  carrying  down 
to  sea  thousands  of  tons  of  rich  earth.  Gifford  Pin- 


590        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


chot,  for  many  years  a  student  of  forestry  and  later  head  of 
the  forestry  bureau  in  the  federal  government,  took  leader 
ship  in  urging  the  conservation  of  all  the  natural  re 
sources  :  forests,  water  supplies,  and  minerals,  as  well  as 
the  irrigation  of  the  arid  lands.  Senator  Newlands,  of 


i^^-ifS 


THE  ARROWROCK  DAM  ABOVE  BOISE  ON  THE  BOISE  RIVER 


Nevada,  who  knew  the  problems  of  the  West  at  first  hand, 
year  in  and  year  out  pressed  upon  Congress  the  urgent 
necessity  for  action. 

The  Reclamation  Act  (1902). — As  a  result  of  the  demands 
of  public-spirited  citizens,  Congress  passed,  on  June  17,  1902, 
the  Reclamation  Act  —  a  law  for  redeeming  the  arid  regions 
of  the  West.  This  law  provided  that  the  money  collected 
by  the  federal  government  from  the  sale  of  public  lands 


THE  OPENING  OF  THE  NEW  CENTURY 


591 


be  used  to  build  dams  and  store  water  for  gradual  dis 
tribution  over  desert  areas.  The  lands  thus  reclaimed 
were  to  be  sold  by  the  government  to  settlers  and  certain 
charges  made  for  the  use  of  the  water.  The  money  secured 
by  the  government  from  the  settlers  was  to  be  used  to 
construct  new  dams  and  irrigation  works,  so  that  a  large 
fund  would  be  provided  forever  to  bring  additional 


NATIONAL  FORESTS,  1918 

lands  under  cultivation.  Work  was  immediately  begun 
under  this  plan.  In  the  spring  of  1911  the  Roosevelt 
Dam  in  Arizona  was  built,  and  the  erection  of  other  plants 
went  forward  rapidly. 

The  National  Forests. --While  the  irrigation  work  was 
under  way,  attention  was  being  given  to  the  forest  lands 
owned  by  the  federal  government.  In  1906  the  cattle 
rangers  who  turned  their  sheep  and  cattle  loose  to  graze  in 
the  national  forests  were  compelled  to  pay  the  government 
for  the  privilege.  In  the  same  year  the  government  began 


592        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

the  practice  of  renting  to  electric  companies  the  right  to 
use  the  water  power  on  the  government  lands,  instead  of 
either  giving  that  privilege  away  or  selling  it  at  a  small  sum. 
The  next  year,  1907,  President  Roosevelt,  following  an 
example  set  by  President  Cleveland  years  before,  by  a 
single  proclamation  added  to  the  permanent  national 
forests  a  vast  area  of  forty-three  million  acres.  In 
order  to  protect  these  forests  against  fire  and  marauders, 
a  force  of  forest  rangers  was  established,  roads  and  trails 
were  built,  and  telephone  lines  put  up.  By  this  system 
it  was  possible  for  the  rangers  to  communicate  rapidly 
with  one  another,  spread  the  alarm  whenever  a  fire  broke 
out,  and  concentrate  forces  for  fighting  it.  Before  the 
new  plans  were  adopted  it  was  common  for  a  single  fire 
to  sweep  away  thousands  of  acres  of  valuable  timber. 
So  effective  was  the  fire-prevention  work  that  in  1908  only 
about  15  per  cent  of  the  fires  that  broke  out  in  the 
national  forests  spread  over  more  than  five  acres. 

II.  THE  PANAMA  CANAL.  THE  TREATY  OF  PORTSMOUTH 

Early  History.  --  From  the  day  when  Balboa  struggled 
across  the  narrow  isthmus  and  beheld  the  waters  of 
the  Pacific  down  to  our  time,  men  had  dreamed  of  cutting 
across  the  strip  of  land  which  compelled  ships  sailing 
between  New  York  and  San  Francisco  to  take  the  journey 
around  Cape  Horn.  Great  Britain  was  interested  in  this 
project  because  she  had  more  merchant  ships  on  the 
high  seas  than  any  other  country  in  the  world ;  and  the 
United  States  was  interested  in  it  because  manufacturers 
and  farmers,  who  had  produce  and  goods  to  ship  across 
great  stretches  of  the  American  continent,  were  anxious  to 
find  lower  freight  rates  than  the  railroads  could  grant. 

Indeed  before  the  days  of  railroads  the  matter  was  seri- 


THE  OPENING  OF  THE  NEW  CENTURY 


593 


ously  considered,  and  in  1850  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  by  the  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty,  agreed  that  a  canal 
might  be  built  by  a  private  corporation  under  their  joint 
supervision.  Nothing  came  of  this  proposal.  Then  in  1881 
Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  who  was  celebrated  throughout 
the  world  for  his  achievement  in  building  the  Suez  Canal, 
organized  a  French  company  and  began  the  work  of  cutting 


m 


\\rna.  Eng.  Co.,  ^.Si 

THE  PRINCIPAL  TRADE  ROUTES  THROUGH  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  After  spending  millions 
of  francs  and  losing  hundreds  of  lives,  the  French  company 
gave  up  the  task  in  despair.  There  was  a  lull  in  public 
interest  in  the  canal,  until  the  attention  of  the  people  of  the 
United  States  was  forcibly  drawn  to  it  again  by  the  historic 
voyage  of  the  battleship  Oregon  around  the  Horn,  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Spanish  War. 

New  Treaty  with  Great  Britain.  — After  the  Spanish 
War  was  over,  many  people  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  United  States  alone  should  control  any  canal 


594        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

which  might  be  built  to  connect  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific.  In  1901  another  arrangement,  known  as  the  Hay- 
Pauncefote  Treaty,  was  made  with  Great  Britain,  setting 
aside  the  old  agreement.  This  new  contract  provided  that 
the  canal  should  be  constructed  under  the  sole  direction  of 
the  United  States,  either  at  its  own  cost  or  by  a  private 
company  under  its  control.  The  United  States  agreed  that 
the  canal  should  be  free  and  open  to  the  vessels  of  all  nations, 
and  that  there  should  be  no  discriminations  in  tolls  against 
any  nation  or  its  citizens. 

Dispute  over  the  Routes.  -  -  The  next  great  question  con 
fronting  the  country  was  where  and  how  the  canal  should 
be  built.  After  much  dispute  Congress,  in  June,  1902, 
ordered  that  the  French  company's  claims  in  Panama 
should  be  bought  and  that  arrangements  should  be  made 
with  the  Republic  of  Colombia  to  purchase  the  strip  of  ter 
ritory  through  which  to  build  the  canal.  It  was  provided, 
however,  that,  if  an  agreement  could  not  be  made  with 
Colombia,  the  route  through  Nicaragua  should  be  chosen. 

The  Panama  "Revolution."  -The  government  of  the  United 
States  then  undertook  to  acquire  the  canal  strip,  only  to  find 
Colombia  unwilling  to  accept  the  terms  offered.  President 
Roosevelt  was  vexed  by  this,  because  he  thought  that  Co 
lombia  was  taking  advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  exact  more 
money  from  the  United  States  than  the  land  was  worth.  Some 
of  the  inhabitants  in  Panama  were  also  displeased  about  it. 
They  were  anxious  to  see  work  on  the  canal  begun,  because 
it  meant  the  spending  of  millions  of  dollars  there  and  great 
prosperity  for  that  region.  In  the  autumn  of  1903  the 
people  of  Panama,  feeling  certain  that  the  United  States 
would  uphold  them,  revolted  against  Colombia.  President 
Roosevelt,  who  had  sent  naval  forces  down  to  watch  the 
course  of  events,  at  once  acknowledged  the  independence 
of  the  new  republic.  Early  in  the  next  year  a  treaty  was 


THE  OPENING  OF  THE  NEW  CENTURY 


595 


made  with  Panama,  authorizing  the  United  States  to  con 
struct  and  operate  a  canal  th.ough  the  zone. 

The  Canal  Built.  -  -  The  plan  of  the  canal  was  then  taken 
up  and  it  was  decided  in  1906,  after  a  long  wrangle  in 
Congress,  to  build  great  locks  instead  of  attempting  to  cut 
through  a  channel  level  with  the  sea.  By  an  order  of  Jan- 


A  TLANTIC 
OCEAN 


Boundaries  of  the  Zone 

miiiiiimiiiM    Panama  Railroad 

Panama  Canal 
=        Locks 


PACIFIC  OCEAN 


THE  PANAMA  CANAL  ZONE,  THE  CANAL,  AND  THE  RAILROAD 

uary  6,  1908,  President  Roosevelt  appointed  Colonel  Goe- 
thals  as  head  of  the  commission  to  carry  out  the  enterprise. 
Way  for  the  work  had  been  prepared  by  Dr.  Gorgas  who 
had  made  the  canal  zone  a  place  where  workmen  could  live 
with  safety  to  their  health.  The  failure  of  the  French  com 
pany  had  been  partly  due  to  the  fevers  and  other  diseases 
which  swept  men  away  by  the  hundreds.  The  American 
government,  profiting  by  that  experience,  provided  marvel- 


596        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

ous  sanitary  conditions  in  advance.  When  all  was  ready, 
thousands  of  workingmen  with  engines,  dredges,  locomotives, 
and  supplies  were  brought  together,  and  a  mighty  army  well 
equipped  started  to  realize  the  grand  dream.  In  spite  of 
many  discouragements,  particularly  the  slides  from  the 


THE  Alliance  PASSING  THROUGH  GATUN  LOCKS,  PANAMA  CANAL 
This  was  the  first  ocean  steamship  to  pass  through  the  canal. 

mountain  sides  into  the  channel  and  the  crumbling  of 
foundations  for  the  locks,  the  great  work  was  brought  to  a 
successful  close  and  in  1913  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  and 
the  Pacific  were  joined. 

Foreign  Affairs.  The  Russo-Japanese  Treaty.  —  Mr. 
Roosevelt  also  took  a  deep  interest  in  what  was  going  on  in 
all  the  world  outside  the  United  States.  He  watched  with 


THE  OPENING  OF  THE  NEW  CENTURY     597 

grave  concern  the  progress  of  the  war  between  Japan 
and  Russia  which  broke  out  in  1904,  and  early  in  the  fol 
lowing  year  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  further 
continuance  of  the  war  "  would  be  a  very  bad  thing  for 
Japan  and  even  a  worse  thing  for  Russia."  He  therefore 
suggested  to  them  that  they  should  begin  peace  negotia 
tions.  As  both  of  them  were  in  dire  straits  for  money  to 
carry  on  the  war,  they  welcomed  this  opportunity  and  sent 
their  agents  to  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  to  confer 
upon  the  terms  of  peace.  President  Roosevelt  took  keen 
satisfaction  in  opening  the  conference  between  the  repre 
sentatives  of  the  two  powers,  and  counted  among  the  most 
noteworthy  events  of  his  administration  the  successful 
ending  of  the  war. 

The  Journey  of  the  Fleet  around  the  World  (1908).  —  In 
order  to  impress  other  nations  with  the  interest  of  the 
United  States  in  world  affairs,  President  Roosevelt  directed 
an  American  fleet  of  sixteen  battleships  to  sail  out  of 
Hampton  Roads  for  a  trip  around  the  world  by  way  of  the 
Straits  of  Magellan,  San  Francisco,  Australia,  the  Philip 
pines,  China,  Japan,  and  the  Suez  Canal.  This  enterprise 
caught  the  attention  of  every  nation,  and  in  the  United 
States  the  people  learned  more  about  the  navy  in  a  few 
weeks  than  they  could  have  learned  in  any  other  way. 

The  Election  of  1908.  —  As  Mr.  Roosevelt's  administra 
tion  was  drawing  to  a  close  many  of  his  friends  urged  him 
to  become  a  candidate  for  the  presidency  a  second  time. 
They  said  that  he  had  really  served  only  one  elective  term, 
beginning  in  1905,  ruling  out  of  account  his  service  as 
successor  to  President  McKinley.  Mr.  Roosevelt  refused 
the  nomination,  however,  declaring  that  his  Secretary  of 
War,  William  Howard  Taft,  should  be  selected  as  his 
successor.  He  was  able  to  secure  Mr.  Taft's  nomination 
by  the  Republicans  in  1908.  The  Democrats,  having 


598 


THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


failed  miserably  in  1904  with  an  eastern  candidate,  Judge 
Alton  B.  Parker  of  New  York,  turned  once  more  to  the 
West  and  chose  Mr.  Bryan,  who  had  already  twice  been 
their  standard  bearer.  In  the  election  which  followed  Mr. 
Bryan  was  defeated  for  the  third  time.  Mr.  Taft  was 
inaugurated  President  on  March  4,  1909. 


III.   TAFT'S  ADMINISTRATION  AND  THE  CAMPAIGN  OF  1912 

Tariff-Revision  and  the  Income  Tax.  —The  first  task  which 
interested  the  new  President  upon  taking  the  oath  of  office 
was  that  of  revising  the  tariff.  More  than  ten  years  had 

elapsed  since  the  passage  of  the 
last  tariff  law  —  the  Dingley  act 
of  1897 — and  the  rapid  progress 
which  had  taken  place  in  industry 
suggested  that  the  time  had  come 
to  change  the  rates  of  the  duty 
levied  on  many  imported  products. 
Accordingly  Mr.  Taft  called  a 
special  session  of  Congress,  which 
met  on  March  n,  1909  and  fash 
ioned  a  new  tariff  law.  This  meas 
ure,  although  it  reduced  the  duties 
on  many  goods,  was  on  the  whole  highly  protective.  In 
deed,  many  Republicans  denounced  it.  Several  of  them, 
particularly  from  the  West,  broke  away  from  the  party 
and  voted  against  it.  The  Democrats,  who  had  advocated 
a  decided  reduction  in  the  duties,  immediately  attacked 
the  law. 

In  addition  to  the  tariff  act  Congress  passed  another 
measure  of  great  importance  in  the  summer  of  1909; 
namely,  a  resolution  amending  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  to  give  Congress  power  to  collect  taxes  on  in- 


w 

f 


WILLIAM  H.  TAFT 


THE  OPENING  OF  THE  NEW  CENTURY     599 

comes  from  whatever  source  derived  (p.  526).  The  resolu 
tion  was  approved  by  three  fourths  of  the  states  and  put 
into  effect  in  1913,  as  the  Sixteenth  Amendment. 

Postal  Savings  Banks.  -  -  Two  other  important  laws  were 
passed  during  President  Taft's  administration.  The  first  of 
these,  enacted  in  1910,  provided  for  a  system  of  savings 
banks  to  be  conducted  by  the  post  offices  of  the  United 
States  government.  This  had  long  been  demanded  as  a 
help  to  people  who  could  make  only  small  savings  and 
needed  some  absolutely  secure  place  to  deposit  them. 

The  Parcel  Post.  —  A  law  creating  a  system  of  parcel 
post  had  been  urged  in  Congress  for  many  years,  but  it 
was  vigorously  opposed,  especially  by  the  representatives  of 
express  companies.  They  contended  that  their  business 
would  be  ruined  if  the  government  should  undertake  to 
carry  parcels,  as  well  as  letters  and  papers,  at  a  low 
rate.  After  much  debate  Congress,  by  a  law  which 
went  into  effect  January  i,  1913,  ordered  the  Post  Office 
Department  to  lay  the  country  out  into  zones  and  to  pro 
vide  low  rates  for  carrying  and  delivering  certain  kinds  of 
parcels. 

Dissolution  of  the  Trusts.  —  Mr.  Taft  insisted  that  some 
of  the  great  trusts  and  combinations,  like  the  Standard  Oil 
Company  and  the  American  Tobacco  Company,  were 
violating  the  Sherman  Anti-trust  Law  of  1890,  and  he 
instructed  the  Attorney  General  to  press  the  prosecutions 
begun  against  these  concerns  in  Mr.  Roosevelt's  adminis 
tration.  In  May,  1911,  the  Supreme  Court  handed  down 
decisions  declaring  that  these  two  companies  were  violating 
the  law  by  unduly  restraining  or  interfering  with  business. 
Each  one  of  them  was  accordingly  broken  up  into  several 
companies,  which  were  supposed  to  compete  with  each  other 
and  thus  prevent  monopolies  from  arbitrarily  fixing  the 
prices  of  oil  and  tobacco  products. 


600        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

Growing  Dissatisfaction  with  Republican  Rule.  —  Notwith 
standing  President  Taft's  work  in  securing  a  revision  of  the 
tariff,  prosecuting  the  trusts,  and  urging  such  reforms  as 
the  postal  savings-bank  law,  there  was  much  discontent 
in  the  country  with  the  Republican  party.  In  the  House  of 
Representatives  the  Democrats  complained  that  the  Speaker, 
Joseph  G.  Cannon,  of  Illinois,  conducted  business  in  an 
arbitrary  manner  and  did  not  give  the  ordinary  member 
of  the  House  a  chance  to  be  heard.  Some  Republicans 
shared  this  view,  and  in  March,  1910,  after  stormy  and 
exciting  scenes,  the  House  reduced  Speaker  Cannon's  power 
by  ousting  him  from  the  committee  on  rules  and  depriving 
him  of  the  right  to  appoint  its  members.  In  the  autumn 
of  1910  the  discontent  among  the  voters  was  so  widespread 
that  the  Republicans  were  turned  out  of  power  in  the  House 
and  a  majority  of  Democratic  representatives  was  elected. 

Quarrels  between  Congress  and  President  Taft.  -  -  The  re 
maining  years  of  Mr.  Taft's  administration  were  marked  by 
dissensions  between  himself  and  Congress.  The  Democrats 
in  the  House,  as  a  matter  of  course,  insisted  on  having  a 
revision  of  the  tariff  which  would  materially  reduce  the 
duties,  particularly  on  woolen  goods,  sugar,  agricultural 
implements,  and  iron  and  steel  products.  Indeed,  with  the 
aid  of  independent  Republicans  in  the  Senate,  tariff-reform 
measures  were  passed,  only  to  be  vetoed  by  the  President. 

The  President  was  sorely  disappointed  when,  in  1911, 
a  large  number  of  Republicans  voted  against  his  plan  to 
establish  reciprocity  of  trade  with  Canada.  After  it  was 
finally  adopted  by  Congress,  Canada  rejected  it.  He  was 
able  to  secure  no  other  important  legislation,  with  the 
Democrats  in  power  in  the  House  of  Representatives  and 
a  large  number  of  Republicans  dissatisfied  with  his  policies. 

The  Progressive  Republicans. — A  group  of  Mr.  Taft's 
party  colleagues  who  opposed  his  administration  called 


THE  OPENING  OF  THE  NEW  CENTURY     601 

themselves  Progressive  Republicans,  and  as  early  as  1911 
began  to  hold  meetings  with  a  view  to  preventing  his  re- 
nomination.  Senator  LaFollette,  of  Wisconsin,  took  the 
leadership  in  this  movement  and  became  a  candidate  for  the 
nomination.  In  February,  1912,  Roosevelt  also  entered 
the  lists  against  Taft. 

The  Republican  Presidential  Primary.  —  A  number  of  states, 
including  Oregon,  California,  Illinois,  New  Jersey,  and 
Massachusetts,  had  passed  presidential-primary  laws  giving 
the  voters  the  right  to  express  their  choice  for  President 
directly  at  the  polls.  Taking  advantage  of  the  opportunity 
to  appeal  directly  to  the  party  voters,  Roosevelt  and  Taft 
took  the  stump,  each  endeavoring  to  secure  a  majority  of 
delegates.  When  the  Republican  convention  met  at  Chicago 
it  was  found  that  many  of  the  states  had  sent  two  contest 
ing  delegations,  one  instructed  for  Roosevelt  and  the  other 
for  Taft. 

The  Split  in  the  Republican  Convention.  —  At  once  there 
arose  a  dispute  over  the  right  of  these  contesting  delegates 
to  sit  in  the  convention.  After  a  long  dispute  enough  of 
Taft's  delegates  were  seated  to  assure  his  nomination. 
Thereupon  Roosevelt's  friends  "bolted"  the  convention,  de 
claring  that  their  rights  had  been  "stolen"  from  them.  After 
the  "bolters"  were  gone,  the  remaining  delegates  proceeded 
to  choose  Taft  as  the  Republican  candidate  for  President. 

Formation  of  the  Progressive  Party.  —  So  strong  was  the 
Opposition  of  Roosevelt's  friends  to  the  conduct  of  the 
Republican  convention  that  they  decided  to  found  a  new 
organization  known  as  the  "Progressive  Party."  -They 
called  a  convention  of  Progressive  delegates  at  Chicago  in 
August. 

The  Progressives  at  their  first  national  assembly  nominated 
Roosevelt  for  the  presidency  and  put  forward  a  platform 
favoring  many  doctrines  that  had  formerly  been  advocated 


602         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

only  by  minor  parties.  They  indorsed  such  reforms  as 
direct  presidential  primaries,  the  initiative  and  referendum, 
popular  election  of  United  States  Senators,  the  short  ballot, 
and  woman  suffrage.  They  approved,  also,  many  measures 
in  favor  of  labor,  such  as  the  prohibition  of  child  labor, 
minimum  wages  for  women  and  children,  and  the  protection 
of  the  working  people  by  laws  safeguarding  their  health  and 
safety.  The  Progressives  also  denounced  all  attempts  to 
break  up  the  great  trusts  and  combinations,  and  urged  in 
stead  that  these  should  be  so  regulated  as  to  prevent  them 
from  charging  exorbitant  prices  and  mistreating  competitors. 
The  Democrats  Nominate  Woodrow  Wilson.  -  -  The  split 
in  the  Republican  Party  was  greeted  with  joy  by  the 
Democrats,  whose  convention  met  at  Baltimore  on  Juno 
25th.  When  the  convention  assembled  it  was  discovered 
that,  while  Champ  Clark,  of  Missouri,  had  a  majority 
of  all  the  delegates,  he  could  not  secure  the  nomination 
because  it  required  a  two-thirds  vote.  After  a  long  contest, 
Mr.  Bryan  threw  his  support  to  Governor  Woodrow  Wilson 
of  New  Jersey  and  secured  his  nomination.  In  the  election 
which  followed,  the  Democrats  were  easily  victorious. 

IV.     WILSON'S  ADMINISTRATION 

New  Laws. --When  Mr.  Wilson  was  inaugurated  on 
March  4,  1913,  certain  tasks  lay  clearly  before  the  Demo 
cratic  party ;  and  under  President  Wilson's  open  and  vigor-- 
ous  leadership  Congress  enacted  an  unusually  striking 
program  of  legislation : 

I.  The  Tariff.  The  first  task  was  the  fulfillment  of  the 
pledge  to  revise  the  tariff,  and  accordingly  the  President 
called  a  special  session  to  undertake  that  work.  After  many 
months  of  debate  and  the  firm  insistence  of  the  President 
that  there  should  be  no  neglect  of  duty,  Congress  passed  the 


THE  OPENING  OF  THE  NEW  CENTURY     603 

Underwood-Simmons  bill,  which  for  the  first  time  in  dec 
ades  materially  reduced  the  tariff  on  many  important 
commodities. 

2.  Income  Tax.     With  the  tariff  measure  Congress  coupled 
a  law  imposing  a  tax  on  incomes,  making  up,  in  part  at 
least,  for  the  revenue  lost  by  the  reduction  of  the  tariff. 

3.  Clayton   Law.     Congress    then    enacted    the    Clayton 
Anti-trust  Law,  which  was  designed  to  destroy  the  great 
monopolies  and  trusts  by  breaking  them  up  into  small  con 
cerns  and  by  prohibiting  underselling  and  unfair  methods 
of   many  kinds.     The    same    law  declared  that  labor  was 
not  a  commodity,    and  that  labor  unions  were  not  trusts 
or  combinations  in  restraint  of  trade,  liable  to  prosecution 
for  interference  with  wages  and  conditions  of  employment. 
Congress    also    provided    that    whenever   the   judge    of   a 
federal    court    issued    an    order   or    injunction    forbidding 
strikers    to    carry  out  their  plans,   he  could  not  imprison 
them  for  disobeying  without   affording  them  the   right  of 
trial  by  jury. 

4.  Federal  Reserve  Law.     The  law  against  the  trusts  was 
followed  by  an  act  creating  a  new  federal  banking  system 
designed  among  other  things  to  reduce  the  power  of  great 
banking  centers  like  New  York  (p.  531). 

Troubles  with  Mexico.  —  On  the  day  of  his  inaugura 
tion  President  Wilson  faced  serious  troubles  with  Mexico. 
In  1911  a  revolution  had  broken  out  there  and  General 
Porfirio  Diaz,  who,  as  president,  had  long  ruled  the  coun 
try  with  an  iron  hand,  was  overthrown.  His  successor, 
Francisco  Madero,  was  hardly  installed  before  he  was 
assassinated  and  a  dictatorship  set  up  under  General  Huerta 
in  February,  1913. 

American  Interests  in  Mexico.  -  -  The  disturbances  in 
Mexico  were  of  serious  moment  to  the  United  States.  Many 
American  citizens  in  that  country  were  killed  in  the  course 


604        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

of  the  civil  war,  and  the  lives  of  others  were  in  constant 
jeopardy.  Americans  who  had  millions  of  dollars  invested 
in  Mexican  mines,  oil  wells,  plantations,  and  other  ventures 
found  their  incomes  cut  off  and  their  property  destroyed 
or  seized.  During  Mr.  Taft's  administration  the  situation 
had  already  become  so  serious  that  he  felt  impelled  to 
warn  the  Mexican  government  against  violating  American 
rights.  His  warning  was  without  effect,  and  Mr.  Wilson, 
on  assuming  authority,  was  urged  to  send  troops  into 
Mexico  to  protect  American  interests  and  restore  order. 

The  Vera  Cruz  Expedition.  —  From  the  very  beginning, 
however,  President  Wilson  insisted  that  the  Mexicans  had  a 
right  to  settle  their  own  problems  and  that  the  United 
States  government  ought  not  to  wage  war  on  them.  It  was 
argued  that  the  tyrannical  government  of  General  Diaz  and 
the  cruel  treatment  of  peons  or  serfs  on  the  plantations 
had  been  largely  responsible  for  the  revolution,  and  that  the 
Mexicans  should  be  permitted  to  work  out  their  destiny  in 
their  own  way.  Of  course,  this  meant  that  there  would 
be  much  disorder,  and  perhaps  some  loss  of  American 
property  and  life.  President  Wilson,  however,  refused  to 
recognize  Huerta  as  president,  attempted  settlement  by 
negotiations  with  revolutionary  leaders,  and  sent  an  ex 
pedition  to  Vera  Cruz,  which  resulted  in  the  flight  of 
Huerta. 

United  States  Troops  Sent  into  Mexico.  -  -  The  President's 
patience  was  exhausted  in  the  spring  of  1916  when  a 
Mexican  bandit,  Villa,  with  a  small  troop,  crossed  into 
New  Mexico  and  deliberately  murdered  a  number  of 
American  citizens.  It  was  apparent  that  the  Mexican 
president,  Carranza,  who  in  the  counter-revolution  of  1913 
had  succeeded  Huerta,  was  unable  to  prevent  such  outrages, 
and  President  Wilson  dispatched  divisions  of  the  regular 
army  and  the  national  guard  to  the  border.  He  ordered 


THE  OPENING  OF  THE  NEW  CENTURY     605 

General  Pershing  to  follow  Villa  and  seize  him  if  possible. 
Under  this  order,  American  troops  penetrated  more  than 
a  hundred  miles  into  Mexico,  but  they  were  unable  to 
capture  the  troublesome  bandit.  The  prospect  of  war 
with  Germany  early  in  1917  made  it  impossible  for  the 
United  States  to  give  so  much  attention  to  Mexican  affairs 
and  American  troops  were  withdrawn.  President  Carranza 
was  given  a  free  rein  in  his  efforts  to  bring  peace  and  good 
order  to  his  distracted  country. 

The  Caribbean.  The  Nature  of  American  Interests.— 
The  policy  of  non-intervention  was  not  pursued  by  Presi 
dent  Wilson  in  the  case  of  Haiti  and  the  Dominican  Re 
public,  where  disorders  were  raging  about  the  same  time. 
The  island  of  Haiti  is  a  part  of  the  important  Caribbean 
region,  one  of  a  long  chain  of  islands  stretching  from 
the  coast  of  Florida  to  the  coast  of  South  America.  It 
lies  in  a  direct  line  between  Cuba,  now  under  the  pro 
tection  of  the  United  States,  and  the  island  of  Porto  Rico. 
It  also  lies  athwart  the  route  from  Europe  to  the  Panama 
Canal,  and  if  it  should  fall  into  the  hands  of  a  hostile 
European  power  it  would  be  a  source  of  danger  to  American 
interests. 

The  Dominican  Republic.  -  -  The  significance  of  the  island 
had  long  been  understood  by  American  statesmen.  In 
1905  the  Dominican  Republic,  which  occupies  the  eastern 
portion,  was  in  a  state  of  financial  distress,  and  France 
and  Italy  were  preparing  to  collect  by  force  of  arms,  if 
necessary,  debts  due  their  citizens.  President  Roosevelt, 
on  the  request  of  the  Dominican  president,  assumed  the 
role  of  mediator.  By  a  treaty  of  1907  the  government  of 
the  United  States  undertook  to  manage  the  revenues  of 
the  little  republic  and  pay  the  creditors,  thus  forestalling 
European  intervention.  Four  years  later,  one  of  the 
periodical  revolutions  from  which  the  republic  suffers  — 


6o6        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

there  were  twenty  between  1865  and  1895  —  broke  out, 
and  continued  until  President  Wilson  came  into  office. 
In  October,  1914,  American  officers  and  marines  were  in 
structed  to  "  supervise  "  the  elections  in  the  republic. 
Later,  American  troops  were  employed  to  put  down  a  re 
volt  which  arose  in  connection  with  the  elections.  It  be 
came  evident,  therefore,  that  the  government  of  the  United 
States  had  adopted  the  policy  of  keeping  order  there,  and 
for  practical  purposes  the  Dominican  Republic  was  a 
"  protectorate  "  of  this  country. 

Haiti.  —  A  similar  condition  of  affairs  obtained  in  the 
neighboring  republic  of  Haiti.  In  the  summer  of  1915 
a  revolution  broke  out,  —  one  of  a  continuous  series 
lasting  from  1804  to  the  opening  of  the  twentieth  century — 
and  American  marines  were  landed  to  restore  order.  In 
September,  1916,  a  treaty  was  made  with  Haiti  by  which  the 
United  States  undertook  to  control  the  police  and  manage 
the  finances. 

The  Purchase  of  the  Danish  West  Indies.  --In  line  with 
this  policy  of  guarding  American  interests  in  the  Caribbean 
was  the  purchase  of  the  Danish  Islands  just  off  the  eastern 
coast  of  Porto  Rico,  in  1917.  Twice  before,  the  United 
States  had  arranged  to  buy  these  islands  :  once  in  1867,  when 
the  American  Senate  refused  to  agree  to  the  purchase,  and 
again  in  1902,  when  the  Upper  House  of  the  Danish  parlia 
ment,  no  doubt  under  the  influence  of  Germany,  voted 
against  the  plan.  When  the  last  treaty  of  purchase  was 
made  with  Denmark,  Germany,  being  engaged  in  a  life 
and  death  struggle,  was  in  no  position  to  interfere.  So  in 
the  summer  of  1917  the  Stars  and  Stripes  were  hoisted  over 
the  Virgin  Islands,  —  St.  Croix,  St.  Thomas,  and  St.  John. 


THE  OPENING  OF  THE  NEW  CENTURY     607 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.    What    is    the  meaning  of   the   phrase  "conservation  of 
natural  resources"  ?     What  natural  resources  have  been  needlessly 
wasted  in  this  country?     This  waste  has  been  called    a  "crime 
against  posterity"  ;  what  is  meant  by  this  statement  ?     2.    What 
is    meant     by    "irrigation"  ?       How    is    the    irrigation    of   arid 
lands    usually    accomplished  ?      What    are    the    advantages    of 
farming  under  a  system  of  artificial  irrigation  as  compared  with 
farming  where  one  depends  upon  rainfall  ?     What  are  the  dis 
advantages  ? 

II.  i.    When  and   by  whom   was  the  first   attempt  made  to 
construct  a    Panama  canal  ?     What  led  to  a  renewal  of  interest 
in  this  project  ?     2.    From  a  study  of  the  map  of  Central  America 
find  what  advantages  the  Nicaragua  route  for  the  canal  between 
the   oceans   had   over  the    Panama   route.      What  were  its   dis 
advantages  ?     3.    How  did  the  United  States  come  into  possession 
of  the  Canal  Zone  ?      4.    W7hen  was  the  American  work  on  the 
canal  begun  ?     When   was  the   canal  opened  ?     5.    Whose  name 
is  connected  with  the  digging  of  the  canal,  and  what  difficulties 
did  this  man  overcome  ?     6.    What  war  was  ended  by  the  Treaty 
of  Portsmouth  ? 

III.  i.    Why  was  there  so  keen  a  demand  for  postal  savings 
banks?      For   the    "parcel  post"?     Why  were  these  extensions 
of  the  government's  service  to   the  people  opposed  ?      2.    What 
great  "trusts"  were  "dissolved"  in  1911  ?     What  did  this  "dis 
solution"  mean  ?      3.    What  were  the  causes  of  President  Taft's 
difficulties  with  Congress  ?     4.    What  new  party  was  formed  in 
1912  ?     What  led  to  its  organization  ?     5.    What  is  the  difference 
between  the  "popular"  vote  for  President  and  the  "electoral" 
vote  ?     Why  did  the  framers  of  the  Constitution  provide  for  the 
election  of  the  President  by  means  of  the  "electoral  college"  ? 
Under  what  conditions  is  a  candidate  likely  to  be  elected  without 
receiving  a  majority  of  the  popular  vote  ?     (Lincoln,  Cleveland, 
and  Wilson  have  been  "minority"  presidents,  each  in  one  of  his 
two  terms.) 

IV.  i.   What  important  laws  were  passed  in  the  early  part  of 
Mr.  Wilson's  first  administration  ?     2.    How  did  the  trouble  with 
Mexico  begin  ?     3.    Mr.  Wilson's  policy  of  "watchful  waiting"  in 
the  Mexican  troubles  between   1913   and  1916  was  severely  criti- 


608        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

cized  by  many  persons.  What  were  their  reasons  for  desiring 
intervention  and  what  were  his  reasons  for  not  intervening? 
4.  What  control  does  the  United  States  exert  over  the  Domini 
can  Republic  and  Haiti?  5.  How  did  the  Virgin  Islands  come 
to  be  American  possessions  ? 

Review:  Make  a  table  of  the  Presidents  from  1865  to  1917,  and 
under  each  President  give  a  list  of  the  important  events  that 
happened  during  his  administration. 


PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Topics  for  individual  study  and  report : 
The  duties  of  the  forest  rangers. 

See  Wheeler's  "The  Boy  with  the  U.  S.  Foresters." 
The  Panama  canal. 

Early  work  of  the  French. 

The  service  of  Gorgas  in  making  the  Canal  Zone  safe  for 
the  workman. 

The  digging  of  the  canal. 

The  construction  of  the  locks. 

The  "slides"  and  methods  of  dealing  with  the  problem. 

The  influence  of  the  canal  on  commerce. 
See  Hall  and  Chester's  "Panama  and  the  Canal." 

2.  Find  in  Article  I,  Section  9  of  the  Constitution,  the  clause 
with  which  the  Supreme  Court  held  the  income  tax  law  of  1894  to 
be  inconsistent. 

3.  Give  as  many  reasons  as  you  can  explaining  why  the  Mexican 
people  have  so  far  been  much  less  successful  in  establishing  a 
democratic  government  than  have  the  people  of  the  United  States. 
What  in  your  opinion  are  some  of  the  important  things  that  must 
be  done  by  any  people  if  a  truly  democratic  form  of  government  is 
to  be  successfully  established  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 
THE  GREAT  WAR 

Europe  on  Fire.  —  During  the  opening  days  of  August, 
1914,  the  people  of  the  United  States  were  startled  by  the 
dreadful  news  that  the  great  powers  of  Europe  were  at  war. 
It  seemed  impossible ;  but  it  was  true.  .  Austria  had  accused 
Serbia  of  taking  part  in  a  plot  which  resulted  in  the  assas 
sination  of  Archduke  Ferdinand  (the  heir  to  the  Austrian 
throne)  and  his  wife,  and  had  made  humiliating  demands 
upon  the  Serbian  government.  Russia,  unwilling  to  see 
Serbia  destroyed,  made  serious  objections.  Germany, 
armed  to  the  teeth,  assured  Austria  that  her  support  would 
be  forthcoming  at  all  costs.  France  knew  that  to  abandon 
Russia  in  that  hour  would  leave  herself  isolated  and  help 
less  before  Germany  at  some  later  time. 

On  the  first  of  August  the  conflict  began,  with  England 
still  hanging  in  the  balance.  Soon  the  Kaiser's  hosts 
were  sweeping  into  neutral  Belgium,  whose  safety  had  been 
guaranteed  by  all  the  powers,  and  driving  at  the  heart  of 
France.  The  German  military  staff  had  planned  to  seize 
the  French  capital,  thus  paralyzing  the  Republic  by  one 
swift  and  stunning  blow;  and  then,  with  the  aid  of  Austria, 
to  destroy  Russia  at  leisure,  making  the  German  Empire  the 
master  of  Europe.  Great  Britain,  knowing  that  a  victorious 
Germany,  standing  over  the  prostrate  forms  of  France  and 
Belgium,  would  soon  challenge  her  very  existence  as  well 
as  her  world  empire,  sprang  to  their  aid. 

2R  609 


6lO        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

I.   AMERICAN  NEUTRALITY 

The  President's  Proclamation.  —  Overcome  by  the  horror 
of  it  all,  the  people  of  the  United  States  were  for  a  time 
like  dazed  spectators,  unable  to  appreciate  the  red  terror 
that  was  devastating  Europe,  hoping  without  encourage 
ment  that  the  storm  would  soon  pass.  President  Wilson  on 
August  1 8,  1914,  issued  a  proclamation  advising  all  citizens 
to  "  act  and  speak  in  the  true  spirit  of  neutrality  which  is 
the  spirit  of  impartiality  and  fairness  and  friendliness  to 
all  concerned." 

This  was  advice  difficult  to  follow.  Many  Americans  of 
German  birth  or  parentage  instinctively  sympathized  with  the 
Fatherland,  and  many  Irish,  remembering  their  struggle  for 
home  rule,  joined  them  in  wishing  defeat  to  Great  Britain. 
Americans  of  the  old  native  stock,  deeply  moved  by  Ger 
many's  cruelty  to  Belgium  and  remembering  their  ties  to  Eng 
land  and  their  gratitude  to  France  for  aid  in  the  American 
Revolution,  took  the  other  side.  They  grew  more  and  more 
pronounced  in  their  support  of  the  Allies  against  Germany 
and  Austria  as  the  Germans  began  to  bomb  English  open 
towns  and  destroy  merchant  ships  and  their  crews  at  sea. 
Between  the  groups  was  a  large  third  party  of  citizens 
who  sought  at  all  costs  to  keep  the  United  States  from 
becoming  embroiled  in  the  struggle. 

Arguments  for  American  Inaction. -- When  it  was  urged 
that  the  United  States  could  not  be  indifferent  to  the  out 
come  of  the  war,  advocates  of  non-intervention  replied  that 
the  war  was  simply  another  case  of  the  "  pot  calling  the 
kettle  black,"  that  England  and  France  had  seized  colonies 
in  all  parts  of  the  world  and  oppressed  other  nationalities 
in  India,  Africa,  and  China,  and  that  they  were  now  object 
ing  to  Germany's  attempt  to  follow  their  own  example. 
It  was  repeatedly  said  also  that  the  Russian  autocracy  was 


THE  GREAT  WAR  611 

at  least  equally  responsible  with  Germany  for  the  war.  As 
between  the  Romanoffs  in  Russia  and  the  Hohenzollerns  in 
Germany,  there  appeared  to  them  to  be  little  to  choose. 
All  in  all,  those  who  took  such  views  in  one  form  or  another 
declared  that  under  no  circumstances  should  the  United 
States  join  in  "  a  selfish  scramble  for  spoils  and  power." 

Difficulties  in  the  Way  of  a  Strict  Neutrality :  Trade 
Relations  with  the  Allies.  --To  the  pacifists,  it  seemed 
a  simple  matter  for  this  country  to  close  its  doors  and 
windows  and  let  the  storm  rage,  but  in  truth  it  was  not 
at  all  a  simple  matter.  The  United  States  had  long  carried 
on  a  large  and  varied  trade  with  all  the  countries  of 
Europe  —  those  at  war  and  those  at  peace  —  belligerents 
and  neutrals.  Ships  plying  between  our  ports  and  those 
of  Europe,  trans-Atlantic  cables,  mails,  and  wireless 
telegraphy  bound  us  to  the  Old  World  nations  with  a 
thousand  ties.  With  war  raging  these  could  not  remain 
undisturbed. 

It  had  long  been  recognized  by  all  nations  that  a 
belligerent  has  the  right  to  blockade  the  ports  of  his  enemy 
if  he  can.  This  right  the  government  of  the  United  States 
had  exercised  with  telling  effect  against  the  Southern  states 
during  the  Civil  War.  It  had  also  been  long  recognized 
that  a  belligerent  has  the  right  to  intercept  all  war  supplies 
(contraband  goods)  destined  for  his  enemy,  no  matter  by 
whom  carried  and  to  what  port  immediately  shipped,  even 
that  of  a  friendly  power. 

Great  Britain  immediately  took  full  advantage  of  these 
rights.  She  swept  German  ships  from  the  ocean,  block 
aded  the  German  ports,  searched  ships  bound  to  neutral 
countries  for  war  supplies  destined  to  Germany,  and  thus 
throttled  German  foreign  commerce.  British  triumph  at 
sea  gave  enormous  advantages  to  the  Allies.  Trade  could 
flow  without  interruption  to  their  ports,  because  Germ^nv, 


612        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

having  no  battleships  on  the  seas,  could  not  blockade  their 
ports  or  disturb  their  merchant  vessels. 

The  Trade  in  Food-supplies  and  Munitions.  —  During 
the  opening  months  of  the  war  the  citizens  of  the 
United  States  built  up  a  huge  trade  with  England  and 
France  in  foodstuffs  and  war  supplies.  Seeing  the 
fruits  of  the  triumph  at  sea  gathered  by  the  Allies,  the 
Germans  both  in  this  country  and  in  Germany  began 
to  protest  vigorously.  To  Americans  of  pacific  leanings 
it  seemed  dreadful  for  our  manufacturers  to  be  engaged 
in  selling  billions  of  dollars'  worth  of  death-dealing  in 
struments  to  England  and  France.  The  German  govern 
ment  did  not  officially  protest,  however,  because  German 
munition-makers  had  been  the  chief  purveyors  of  war 
materials  during  previous  wars.  They  could  not  with  a 
straight  face  object  to  American  manufacturers  following 
in  their  footsteps.  That  was  not  all.  This  country  could 
not  deny  the  right  of  a  neutral  government  to  sell  arms  to 
belligerents  without  laying  up  trouble  for  itself  in  the  future. 
If  a  nation  cannot  expect  to  buy  military  supplies  from 
other  countries  in  time  of  war,  then  it  must  make  huge  prep 
arations  for  the  future  by  turning  its  industries  into  gigantic 
munitions  plants,  in  order  to  be  ready  for  the  greatest  emer 
gency  that  may  arise.  Such  was  the  reply  made  to  Austria 
when  that  country  addressed  the  United  States  on  the 
subject. 

An  Embargo  on  Exports  Impossible.  -  -  There  was  only  one 
way  that  the  United  States  could  fully  satisfy  the  friends 
of  Germany.  That  was  by  following  the  example  set  by 
Jefferson  more  than  a  hundred  years  before  and  destroying 
all  foreign  trade  by  an  embargo.  But  that  would  have 
put  the  government  of  the  United  States  in  a  dilemma 
equally  trying :  it  would  have  been  a  direct  blow  at 
England  and  France.  They  would  have  considered  it  as  an 


THE  GREAT  WAR  613 

"unfriendly"  act  to  cut  off  their  trade  after  they  had  bottled 
up  the  German  navy  and  made  way  for  that  trade.  More 
over  an  embargo  would  have  been  a  confession  that  Ameri 
can  shippers,  traders,  and  manufacturers  had  no  rights  of 
trade  abroad  that  any  country  was  bound  to  respect.  If 
the  United  States  had  renounced  its  rights  of  trade  with  the 
Allies,  it  would  have  been  an  unwarranted  favor  to  Ger 
many  and  an  equally  unwarranted  wrong  to  England  and 
France.  No  matter  which  way  the  government  of  the 
United  States  turned,  trouble  lay  in  the  path. 

American  Protests  to  England. — As  to  American  trade 
with  the  Allies  on  the  open  seas,  the  German  government 
had  no  grounds  for  objection;  but  it  was  justified,  un 
doubtedly,  in  protesting  against  the  manner  in  which  Great 
Britain  exercised  her  rights  of  blockade  and  search.  British 
officers  rummaged  Dutch,  Danish,  Swedish,  and  other 
neutral  ships  for  war  supplies,  letters,  papers,  and  other 
valuables  destined  for  Germany  and  seized  many  things 
that  were  lawfully  sent.  Against  this  action  on  the  part 
of  the  British  government,  the  United  States  protested, 
and  demanded  a  discontinuance  of  the  illegal  practices. 
Even  if  Great  Britain  had  kept  always  within  the  narrowest 
limits  of  the  law,  her  control  of  the  sea  would  have  prac 
tically  destroyed  the  ocean-borne  trade  of  the  German  Em 
pire. 

II.   THE  SUBMARINE  OUTRAGES;   THE  CAMPAIGN  OF  1916 

Germany  Adopts  a  Ruthless  Submarine  Policy.  The 
"  Lusitania  "  Sunk  (May  7,  /p/5).  —  Germany,  finding  her 
self  thus  throttled,  attempted  to  break  Great  Britain's 
hold.  In  the  winter  of  1915  the  German  government 
announced  that  its  submarines  would  sink  British  merchant 
vessels  wherever  found  on  the  high  seas.  Under  inter 
national  law  it  had  long  been  agreed  that  warships  should 


614        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

not  destroy  merchantmen  belonging  to  an  enemy  (unless, 
of  course,  they  resisted)  without  providing  for  the  safety 
of  the  passengers  and  crew.  American  citizens  thus  had  the 
right  to  expect  to  travel  with  safety  not  only  on  American 
merchant  vessels  but  also  on  those  of  the  warring  countries 
of  Europe.  So  things  stood  when,  on  May  7,  1915, 
a  German  submarine  startled  the  world  by  destroying, 
without  warning  to  the  captain,  a  great  British  passenger 
vessel,  the  Lusitania,  and  killing  hundreds  of  innocent 
passengers  and  members  of  the  crew,  including  a  number  of 
American  citizens  —  men,  women,  and  children.  In  a  few 
weeks  German  submarines  had  gathered  in  a  deadly  harvest 
of  merchant  ships,  some  of  them  owned  by  Americans 
and  manned  by  American  crews. 

Germany  Agrees  to  Modify  Submarine  Warfare.  -  -  The 
destruction  of  the  Lusitania  and  innocent  non-combatants, 
including  American  citizens,  horrified  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  even  some  who  had  sympathized  with  Ger 
many  in  her  struggles.  President  Wilson  in  a  few  days 
dispatched  to  the  German  government  a  note  asking  it  to 
disavow  such  acts,  make  reparation  for  the  injuries  done, 
and  take  steps  to  prevent  similar  occurrences  in  the  future. 
The  President  added  the  solemn  warning  that  the  United 
States  would  not  "  omit  any  word  or  act  necessary  to  the 
performance  of  its  sacred  duties  of  maintaining  the  rights 
of  the  United  States  and  of  safeguarding  their  free  exercise 
and  enjoyment/'  Germany's  reply  was  evasive.  Presi 
dent  Wilson  wrote  a  second  note,  and  it  was  September  I 
before  Germany  promised  not  to  sink  merchant  vessels 
without  warning  and  agreed  to  provide  for  the  safety  of  the 
passengers  whenever  such  ships  were  sunk. 

Criticism  of  President  Wilson  s  Course.  —  During  the 
exchange  of  notes  with  the  German  government,  very 
strong  emotions  were  aroused  in  this  country.  The  view 


THE  GREAT  WAR  615 

was  widely  held  that  the  sinking  of  the  Lusitania  was 
not  merely  gross  violation  of  the  rights  of  American 
citizens,  but  an  inhuman  act  which  called  for  breaking 
off  all  relations  with  the  German  government,  if  not  the 
immediate  declaration  of  war.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
people  were  angry  because  President  Wilson  was  so  in 
sistent  in  his  protests  against  the  destruction  of  Ameri 
can  lives  by  submarines,  and  yet  unwilling  to  threaten 
Great  Britain  with  armed  force  for  searching  American 
mails  bound  to  and  from  Europe.  In  spite  of  the  criticism 
from  both  sides  the  President  steered  an  even  course,  deter 
mined  apparently  to  keep  the  country  out  of  war — at  least 
until  it  was  clear  that  peaceful  negotiations  with  Germany 
were  useless. 

The  Political  Campaign  of  1916.  --  In  the  midst  of  this 
turmoil  came  the  election  campaign  of  1916.  Naturally 
all  eyes  were  turned  toward  the  Progressives.  Mr.  Wilson's 
chances  for  reelection  seemed  to  depend  to  a  considerable 
extent  upon  the  possibility  of  continued  division  among 
his  opponents.  Signs  of  reunion  appeared  when  it  was 
stated  that  the  Republican  and  Progressive  conventions 
would  be  held  in  Chicago  at  the  same  time.  There  were 
some  who  hoped  that  the  Republicans  would  nominate  Mr. 
Roosevelt,  but  Charles  E.  Hughes,  associate  justice  of  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court  and  a  former  governor  of 
New  York,  was  chosen  on  the  third  ballot.  The  Progres 
sives  then  nominated  Mr.  Roosevelt.  As  he  declined, 
the  national  committee  of  the  party  thereupon  indorsed 
Mr.  Hughes  with  the  hope  of  reuniting  the  two  factions. 
The  Democratic  convention  at  St.  Louis  renominated  Mr. 
Wilson  by  acclamation. 

Issues  of  the  Campaign.  —  In  the  campaign  which  fol 
lowed,  President  Wilson's  policies  with  regard  to  Mexico 
and  Germany  were,  of  course,  widely  discussed,  both  parties 


616        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

taking  a  rather  uncertain  position  as  to  both  countries. 
There  were,  in  addition,  several  other  issues  which  received 
attention  :  Congress  had  (i)  passed  a  law  against  child  labor 
in  mines,  quarries,  and  factories  ;  (2)  it  had  fixed  the  work  day 
for  trainmen  on  railroads  at  eight  hours  ;  (3)  it  had  provided 
for  a  banking  system  to  loan  money  to  farmers  at  a  low  rate 
of  interest ;  (4)  it  had  enacted  a  law  designed  to  encourage 
the  upbuilding  of  the  American  merchant  marine  ;  and  (5)  it 
had  declared  the  intention  of  the  United  States  to  free  the 
Philippine  Islands  as  soon  as  the  people  there  were  ready  for 
self-government.  The  eight-hour  law  for  trainmen  had  been 
enacted  in  the  summer  of  1916,  when  the  railway  unions 
were  threatening  the  country  with  a  general  strike.  Presi 
dent  Wilson,  refusing  to  recommend  the  arbitration  of  the 
matter,  declared  in  favor  of  the  principle  of  an  eight-hour 
day  and  urged  Congress  to  pass  the  law  in  spite  of  the  pro 
tests  of  the  railway  companies.  Mr.  Hughes,  without  attack 
ing  the  eight-hour  day,  denounced  the  method  employed  to 
secure  it.  The  issue  of  woman  suffrage  was  also  brought 
into  the  campaign. 

President  Wilson  Reflected.  -  -  The  election  of  November, 
1916,  proved  to  be  a  general  surprise.  Mr.  Hughes  carried 
all  the  great  industrial  and  commercial  states  of  the  North 
and  East  except  Ohio,  and  on  the  early  returns  from 
these  states  his  election  was  conceded.  Then  the  tide  turned. 
It  was  found  that  Mr.  Wilson,  in  addition  to  carrying  the 
"  solid  South,"  which  in  presidential  elections  has  been 
Democratic,  had  gained  immensely  in  the  West.  In  that 
part  of  the  country  the  Progressives  had  not  gone  back  to 
the  Republican  fold.  Even  California,  which  elected  the 
Republican  candidate  to  the  United  States  Senate,  Gov 
ernor  Hiram  Johnson,  by  a  large  majority,  cast  a  small  but 
safe  margin  of  votes  in  favor  of  Mr.  Wilson.  The  Presi 
dent's  popular  vote  showed  a  gain  of  about  2,000,000  over 


THE  GREAT  WAR  617 

that  of  1912,  and  was  quite  naturally  regarded  as  a  great 
personal  tribute  to  him,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
the  Democrats  almost  lost  their  majority  in  the  House  of 
Representatives.  The  Socialist  vote  fell  considerably  below 
that  of  the  preceding  presidential  election,  largely  on 
account  of  the  fact  that  many  Socialists  approved  Mr. 
Wilson's  policy  in  dealing  with  labor  and  in  keeping  the 
country  out  of  war. 

III.   WAR  WITH  GERMANY 

Germany  Renews  Unrestricted  Submarine  Warfare. 
Bernstorff  Dismissed.  —  More  than  a  month  before  Mr. 
Wilson's  second  inauguration  arrived,  namely  on  January 
31,  1917,  Count  von  BernstorfF,  the  German  ambassador, 
informed  the  President  that  his  government,  in  spite  of  pre 
vious  pledges,  would  renew  the  submarine  war  on  merchant 
ships  with  greater  vigor  than  ever.  Without  any  further 
parleying,  the  President  sent  Ambassador  von  BernstorfF 
home,  broke  off  all  communications  with  the  German  imperial 
government,  and  waited  to  see  whether  hostile  acts  would 
be  committed  by  Germany  against  American  citizens  and 
shipping.  He  was  loath  to  believe  that  Germany  would 
sink  merchant  ships  of  all  countries  on  sight  without  attempt 
ing  to  save  the  lives  of  crews  or  passengers.  In  explaining 
why  he  had  severed  relations  with  the  Kaiser,  he  said : 

We  are  the  sincere  friends  of  the  German  people  and  earnestly 
desire  to  remain  at  peace  with  the  government  which  speaks  for 
them.  .  .  .  God  grant  that  we  may  not  be  challenged  by  acts  of 
willful  injustice  on  the  part  of  the  government  of  Germany. 

The  hope  was  vain,  for  the  German  government  resumed 
its  policy  of  sinking  American  ships  and  destroying  Ameri 
can  lives  without  warning  and  without  pity.  The  challenge 
had  gone  forth. 


618        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 


PRESIDENT  WILSON  SPEAKING  BEFORE  CONGRESS,  APRIL  2,  1917 


THE  GREAT  WAR  619 

German  Intrigue  in  the  United  States.  -  -  This  was  but 
the  climax  of  a  long  chain  of  difficulties  which  the  United 
States  had  encountered  in  dealing  with  Germany  and 
Austria.  Through  their  official  representatives  they  had 
hired  agitators  to  foment  labor  troubles  in  American  indus 
tries  and  engaged  desperate  men  to  blow  up  munition  fac 
tories,  killing  hundreds  of  American  men,  women,  and 
children.  They  had  employed  agents  to  set  bombs  in  the 
holds  of  ships  bound  to  England  and  France  ;  they  had  paid 
newspapers  and  writers  to  advocate  the  German  cause  and 
defame  the  Allies ;  they  had  used  every  means  which  they 
could  devise  to  disturb  our  peace  within  and  our  relations 
with  England  and  France. 

These  were  not  the  deeds  of  a  few  " cranks"  but  the 
deliberate  acts  of  calculating  men.  The  charges  against 
them  are  not  hearsay  stories.  The  records  of  criminal 
courts,  East  and  West,  and  the  records  of  prisons  bear 
convincing  testimony  to  Austrian  and  German  violations 
of  American  security  at  home  as  well  as  abroad.  So  active 
did  these  foreign  agents  become  before  the  break  with  Ger 
many  that  the  President  was  compelled  to  send  the  Aus 
trian  ambassador  home  and  to  order  the  removal  of  sub 
ordinates  attached  to  the  German  embassy  at  Washington. 

Not  content  with  attempts  to  set  Americans  at  war  with 
one  another,  the  German  government  plotted  troubles  in 
Mexico.  On  January  19,  1917,  two  weeks  before  President 
Wilson  was  informed  that  Germany  would  not  keep  her 
submarine  pledges,  the  German  Foreign  Secretary,  Herr 
Zimmermann,  had  written  to  the  German  minister  in  Mexico, 
telling  him  of  the  coming  submarine  warfare  and  instructing 
him  to  offer  a  "restoration"  of  Texas,  Arizona,  and  New 
Mexico,  if  the  Mexican  government  would  join  with  Japan 
in  an  attack  on  the  United  States.  This  last  act  was  so  far 
beyond  the  bounds  of  reason  that  it  dispelled  the  doubts  of 


620        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

those  American  citizens  who  had  not  been  able  to  believe  that 
the  German  government  was  guilty  of  the  plots  and  deeds 
ascribed  to  it.  With  a  government  so  bent  upon  following 
its  own  paths,  without  regard  to  the  rights  and  feelings  of 
other  nations,  compromise  or  further  negotiation  was  im 
possible.  Only  one  course  lay  before  the  President,  and 
resolutely  he  set  out  in  it. 

War  Declared  (April  6,  1917). — On  April  2,   1917,  Presi 
dent  Wilson  invited  Congress  to  assemble  in  joint  session. 

He  explained  to  it  the  duty  of  the 
United  States  in  the  pending  crisis. 
He  recited  the  deeds  of  Germany 
which  had  horrified  mankind  and 
made  impossible  peaceful  relations 
with  the  Kaiser : 


Vessels    of    every    kind,    whatever 
their  flag,  their  character,  their  cargo, 
their   destination,  their   errand,    have 
been    ruthlessly    sent    to    the    bottom 
without  warning  and  without  thought 
•fHi.      of  help  or  mercy  for  those  on  board, 
'"        the  vessels  of  friendly  neutrals  along 
WOODROW  WILSON  with  those  of  belligerents.      Even  hos 

pital  ships  and  ships  carrying  relief  to 

the  sorely  bereaved  and  stricken  people  of  Belgium  .  .  .  have 
been  sunk  with  the  same  reckless  lack  of  compassion  or  principles. 

He  then  told  how  the  German  government  had  filled  our 
unsuspecting  cities  with  spies  and  carried  on  criminal 
intrigues  against  American  peace  and  industry;  how  Ger 
many  had  plotted  in  Mexico  to  stir  up  enemies  at  the  very 
doors  of  the  United  States.  With  a  power  so  indifferent 
to  American  rights  and  so  unscrupulous  in  its  conduct, 
defying  the  laws  of  humanity  and  the  pleas  of  common 
sense,  friendly  relations  could  no  longer  be  maintained. 
Indeed  the  United  States  had  been  already  assailed  by 


THE  GREAT  WAR  621 


Confess  of  t|e  SratA  State  of 

£t  tte  first  £essimi,  . 

B«ffup  and  fcdd  at  the  City  of  Washington  oo  Monday,  the  second   day  of  April. 
one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  seventeen. 


JOINT  RESOLUTION 

Declaring  that  a  state  of  war  exists  between  the  Imperial  German  Government 
frnd  the  Government  and  the  people  of  the  United  States  and  making 
provision  to  prosecute  the  samo. 


Whereas  the  Imperial  German  Government  has  committed  repeated  acts  of 
war  against  the  Government  and  the  people  of  the  United  States  of 
America :  Therefore  be  it 

Resolved  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States 
nf  America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  the  state  of  war  between  the  United 
States  and  the  Imperial  Gennan  Government  which  has  thus  been  thrust  upon 
the  United  States  is  hereby  formally  declared ;  and  that  the  President  be,  and 
he  is  hereby,  authorized  and  directed  to  employ  the  entire  naval  and  military 
forces  of  the  United  States  and  the  resources  uf  the  Government  to  carryonwar 
against  the  Imperial  German  Government;  and  to  bring  the  conflict  to  a 
successful  termination  all  of  the  resources  of  the  country  are  hereby  pledged  by 
the  Congress  of  the  United  States. 


Speaker  oj  the  SOUK  of  Representatives. 


Vice  President  of  the  United  States  and 
»  .  -7  President  of  the  Senate. 


/ 


THE  RESOLUTION  THAT  BROUGHT  Us  INTO  THE  GREAT  WAR 

German  power,  its  ships  had  been  sunk  and  its  citizens 
killed.  President  Wilson,  therefore,  merely  asked  Congress 
to  recognize  the  fact  that  the  recent  course  of  the  im 
perial  German  government  was  indeed  "  nothing  less  than 


622        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

war  against  the  government  and  people  of  the  United 
States."  After  a  few  days'  debate  Congress  solemnly  de 
clared,  on  April  6,  that  a  state  of  war  existed  between 
Germany  and  the  United  States.1 

The  War  against  the  Government,  Not  the  People,  of 
Germany.  —  In  advising  Congress  to  take  this  course, 
President  Wilson  was  careful  to  point  out  that  our  quarrel 
was  with  the  autocratic  government  of  Germany,  not  with 
the  people  of  that  country. 

We  have  no  quarrel  with  the  German  people.  We  have  no  feel 
ing  towards  them  but  one  of  sympathy  and  friendship.  It  was 
not  upon  their  impulse  that  their  government  acted  in  entering 
this  war.  ...  It  was  a  war  determined  upon  as  wars  used  to  be 
determined  upon  in  the  old,  unhappy  days  when  peoples  were 
nowhere  consulted  by  their  rulers,  and  wars  were  provoked  and 
waged  in  the  interests  of  dynasties  or  of  little  groups  of  ambitious 
men  who  were  accustomed  to  use  their  fellow  men  as  pawns  and 
tools.  ...  In  such  a  government,  following  such  methods,  we  can 
never  have  a  friend. 


IV.    THE  GERMAN  AUTOCRACY 

The  German  Government  an  Autocracy.  —  In  order  that 
we  may  understand  the  meaning  of  President  Wilson's 
distinction  between  the  people  towards  whom  we  were 
friendly  and  the  autocracy  on  which  we  made  war,  it  is 
necessary  for  us  to  examine  for  a  moment  the  nature  of 
the  government  of  Germany.  The  German  empire  was  a 
federation  of  twenty-two  kingdoms,  duchies,  and  princi 
palities,  and  three  "  free  cities."  The  king  of  Prussia 
was  the  German  emperor  by  virtue  of  his  right  as  king. 
There  was  an  imperial  parliament  consisting  of  the  imperial 
council  composed  of  agents  of  the  several  kings,  princes, 
and  dukes  and  the  three  free  cities,  and  also  a  lower  house 

1  War  was  not  declared  on  Austria  until  December,  1917. 


THE  GREAT  WAR  623 

or  Reichstag  composed  of  representatives  elected  by  uni 
versal  manhood  suffrage.  There  was  a  high  minister,  the 
chancellor,  who  was  chosen  by  the  emperor  and  was  re 
sponsible  to  him  alone,  not  to  the  representatives  of  the 
voters  as  in  England  and  France.  Laws  could  not  be  made 
without  the  consent  of  the  Reichstag,  but  that  was  about 
as  far  as  its  power  extended.  War  was  made  by  the  emperor, 
who  possessed  absolute  command  of  the  army  and  navy. 
It  is  true  that  an  "  offensive  "  war  required  the  approval 
of  the  imperial  council,  but  that  was  a  mere  formality.  The 
popular  branch  of  the  government  had  no  control  over  the 
declaration  of  war  under  any  circumstances.  It  has  been  cor 
rectly  called  a  "  talking  machine."  The  emperor  appointed 
officers  and  ministers  without  consulting  it,  and  usually  found 
it  pliant  when  he  called  upon  it  for  grants  of  money. 

Prussia  Practically  an  Absolute  Monarchy.  —  It  must 
be  remembered  also  that  the  German  emperor  possessed 
great  powers  as  king  of  Prussia,  which  contained  more  than 
one  half  the  population  and  territory  of  the  empire  and 
sent  seventeen  of  the  sixty-one  members  of  the  imperial 
council.  It  had  a  "  constitution  "  which  was  "  graciously  " 
granted  by  the  king  to  the  people  in  1850.  Under  this  con 
stitution  the  government  of  Prussia  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  king  and  a  few  great  landlords  ("  Junkers  ")  and  rich 
men.  There  was,  it  is  true,  a  "  popular  branch  "  composed 
of  delegates  elected  by  the  voters,  but  the  election  system 
was  so  arranged  that  two  thirds  of  the  "popular"  representa 
tives  were  chosen  by  a  small  group  of  wealthy  men,  while 
the  great  mass  of  the  voters  could  select  only  one  third  of 
the  delegates.  In  Prussia  the  king  ruled  by  divine  right. 
There  he  was  "  King,  by  the  Grace  of  God."  The  people 
were  his  "  subjects  "  in  name  and  in  fact.  The  inhabitants 
of  Prussia  had  protested  against  this  system  for  many  years  be 
fore  the  war,  but  without  effect.  The  Kaiser  and  the  Prussian 


624        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

ruling  class  were  determined  to  keep  their  power  and  to 
beat  down  the  democratic  aspirations  of  their  subjects. 

The  Iron  Rule  of  the  Hohenzollerns  in  Prussia.  -  -  The 
history  of  Prussia  and  this  system  of  government  is  mainly 
the  history  of  one  ruling  family,  the  House  of  Hohenzollern, 
which  began  more  than  three  hundred  years  ago  to  build 
the  little  district  of  Brandenburg  into  a  great  kingdom.  By 
devoting  enormous  sums  to  the  army  and  treating  the 
people  as  mere  taxpayers  and  "food  for  cannon,"  the  Hohen 
zollerns  succeeded  in  establishing  a  strong  military  power. 
They  seized  the  territory  of  their  neighbors  without  qualms 
and  without  apologies.  They  made  war  first  upon  one  coun 
try  and  then  upon  another,  always  in  the  hope  of  gaining 
more  territory. 

By  this  method  they  and  their  barons  were  able  to  form 
the  German  empire  and  bring  the  whole  country  under 
their  dominion.  While  other  nations  were  throwing  aside 
kings  or  reducing  their  power  to  a  shadow,  the  Hohen 
zollerns  waxed  stronger  and  stronger,  commanding  the 
army  with  an  iron  hand,  teaching  in  the  schools  obedience 
to  kings,  and  putting  down  popular  uprisings  with  sternness 
and  cruelty.  In  theory  and  in  fact  Germany  was  ruled  by 
the  German  emperor,  king  of  Prussia,  and  a  handful  of 
generals  and  barons.  The  voice  of  the  people  was  nothing 
but  a  voice  crying  in  the  night. 

The  Hohenzollerns '  Dream  of  World  Dominion.  —  As  long 
as  the  Hohenzollerns  confined  their  seizures  of  property 
to  their  German  neighbors  they  made  little  trouble  for 
the  rest  of  the  world.  In  1871,  however,  after  fomenting 
a  war  with  France,  they  tore  Alsace-Lorraine  away  from  that 
country,  as  Bismarck  frankly  said,  for  the  purpose  of  weak 
ening  the  republic  and  sowing  seeds  of  bitterness  and  warlike 
feeling  there,  thus  giving  an  excuse  for  maintaining  German 
military  power.  After  the  establishment  of  the  German 


THE  GREAT  WAR  625 

empire  in  1871  and  the  remarkable  growth  of  German  com 
merce  and  industry,  the  imperial  government  began  to  look 
upon  the  army  and  the  navy  as  means  for  getting  possession 
of  more  territories  beyond  the  seas  and  destroying  the 
British  empire.  Victorious  over  Denmark  in  1864  and  over 
Austria  in  1866,  triumphant  over  France  in  1871,  the  Hohen- 
zollern  dynasty  was  looking  for  new  worlds  to  conquer. 
German  editors,  professors,  and  publicists  began  to  write 
about  "  world  power,"  to  be  won  by  force  of  arms.  With 
soldiers  drilled,  disciplined,  and  equipped  with  instruments 
of  destruction  as  no  soldiers  had  ever  been  before,  the 
Hohenzollerns  looked  forward  with  confidence  to  the  over 
throw  of  Great  Britain  and  the  extension  of  their  power 
throughout  the  world.  With  colonies  in  Africa,  posts  in 
China,  coaling  stations  in  the  Pacific,  banks  and  industries 
everywhere  in  Latin-America,  there  seemed  no  limit  to 
German  ambitions  if  Great  Britain  could  be  beaten  down, 
sooner  or  later. 

The  Need  of  Crushing  German  Militarism  Recognized.  - 
It  was  against  a  government  conceived  in  military  despotism 
and  dedicated  to  the  proposition  that  kings  can  do  no  wrong 
that  President  Wilson  asked  his  country  to  take  up  arms. 
To  say  that  the  outcome  of  the  war  in  Europe  was  of  no 
concern  to  the  United  States  was  to  ignore  forty  years  of 
German  history.  Thousands  of  peaceful  citizens,  though 
looking  with  horror  upon  the  thought  of  war,  were  slowly 
and  reluctantly  driven  by  events  to  the  conclusion  that  a 
German  victory  in  Europe  meant  danger  for  the  United 
States  in  the  coming  years.  They  realized  that,  with 
Great  Britain  beaten  and  her  colonies  annexed  by  Germany, 
America  would  not  be  spared  by  a  power  founded  on  the 
sword. 

They  remembered  the  hundred  years  of  peace  which  we 
had    maintained  with    the    British   empire ;    they   recalled 


626        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

the  three  thousand  miles  of  border  between  this  country 
and  Canada,  without  a  fort  or  battleship  or  patrol ;  and 
they  could  not  bring  themselves  to  believe  that  with  the 
Hohenzollerns  entrenched  anywhere  in  this  hemisphere  the 
United  States  could  go  on  her  way  undisturbed  by  German 
intrigues,  spies,  and  military  ambitions.  To  them  the  tri 
umph  of  the  German  war  machine,  dominating  all  Europe, 
would  make  vain  and  foolish  two  centuries  of  struggle  for 
popular  government,  for  popular  control  over  the  power  of 
kings  and  aristocracies,  for  the  extension  of  the  suffrage  and 
the  advancement  of  democracy  on  the  earth.  They  took 
the  ground  that  it  was  an  economy  of  time,  blood,  and  treas 
ure  to  crush  Prussian  militarism,  while  so  many  other 
nations  were  ready  to  help.  Thus  the  fear  of  German 
ideals  and  German  militarism  brought  Europe  to  our  doors 
and  the  battle  fields  of  France  near  to  Lexington  and  York- 
town.  Some  Americans  could  not  see  it  in  this  light,  and 
clung  with  desperation  to  peace  at  all  costs ;  but  the  mass 
of  the  American  people  believed  that  the  President  had  seen 
a  true  vision  and  made  a  call  which  could  not  be  denied. 


V.   A  DEMOCRACY  AT  WAR 

No  doubt  the  task  before  the  United  States  was  stag 
gering  in  its  size.  With  their  best  energies  for  three 
hundred  years  devoted  to  preparation  for  war,  the  Hohen 
zollerns  were  well  equipped  for  frightfulness.  Though 
blocked  in  the  West  by  the  armies  of  Great  Britain  and 
France  and  in  the  East  by  the  armies  of  Russia,  they 
were  able  to  keep  at  bay  such  military  forces  as  the 
world  had  never  seen  before.  The  work  to  be  done  was 
serious  and  the  government  of  the  United  States  took  it 
seriously. 

The  Army  and  the  Navy.  -  -  The  Great  War  was  a  war  of 


THE  GREAT  WAR  627 

nations,  not  of  armies  alone  ;  and  the  first  question  confront 
ing  the  American  government  was  whether  it  should  rely 
upon  volunteers  or  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  France  and 
England  and  summon  all  the  people  to  arms  or  war  work. 
Although  it  was  an  old  principle  that  the  duty  of  aiding  in 
national  defense  rests  upon  every  male  capable  of  bearing 
arms,  the  principle  had  been  seldom  applied,  the  notable 
exception  being  the  draft  of  the  Civil  War  (p.  397),  and  many 
Americans  believed  conscription  of  men  contrary  to  Amer 
ican  traditions  and  ideals.  Those  who  held  to  this  view 
urged  that  the  draft  should  be  the  last  resort,  to  be  used 
only  in  case  the  call  for  volunteers  failed  to  raise  the  re 
quired  armies.  Others  believed  that  the  burdens  of  war 
should  be  distributed  as  equitably  as  possible  and  that  to 
defend  democracy  was  a  duty  as  well  as  a  privilege.  The 
counsels  of  the  latter  prevailed. 

On  May  18,  1917?  Congress  enacted  the  selective  draft 
law  declaring  that  the  national  army  should  be  impartially 
chosen  from  among  all  males  between  the  ages  of  21'  and 
31  inclusive.  By  proclamation,  June  5  was  fixed  as  the  day 
for  national  military  registration.  In  August,  1918,  Congress 
passed  a  supplementary  law  extending  the  period  of  years  to 
include  all  men  between  18  and  45  inclusive,  and  Septem 
ber  12  was  appointed  the  day  for  registration.  The  regular 
army  of  the  United  States  and  the  naval  forces  were  materi 
ally  increased  by  volunteers.  When  the  armistice  was  signed 
on  November  n,  1918,  General  Pershing  reported  that  there 
were  in  Europe  and  on  the  way  from  the  United  States  more 
than  two  million  American  soldiers,  less  our  losses,  besides 
about  the  same  number  in  camps  at  home.  Our  losses  in  killed, 
wounded,  prisoners,  and  missing  were  more  than  225,000. 

Raising  the  Money.  --  With  the  conscription  of  men  came 
a  demand  for  the  "  conscription  of  wealth."  Heretofore 
wars  had  been  paid  for  mainly  out  of  borrowed  money  and  the 


628        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

cost  thus  shifted  to  future  generations.  That  is,  the 
soldiers  gave  their  lives  on  the  field  of  battle  and  the  rich 
lent  their  money  to  the  government  at  a  good  rate  of  in 
terest.  As  soon  as  the  war  with  Germany  broke  out,  there 
came  a  plea  from  all  sections  of  the  country  that  Congress 
avoid  this  old  practice  and  provide  for  paying  at  least  a 
large  share  of  the  war  bills  out  of  current  taxes,  especially 
out  of  taxes  imposed  upon  the  large  profits  of  industries  and 
the  incomes  of  the  rich  and  well-to-do.  Under  the  old  plan 
a  man  who  had  a  thousand  dollars  could  lend  it  to  the  govern 
ment  and  receive  his  annual  interest,  and  the  return  of  the 
principal  in  due  time.  Under  the  new  system,  the  government 
would  take  from  him  a  large  share  of  his  thousand  dollars  and 
give  him  neither  interest  nor  principal  in  return  for  that  share. 

In  response  to  the  popular  demand,  Congress  imposed 
heavy  taxes  on  incomes,  on  inheritances,  and  on  the  excess 
profits  of  industries.  The  rest  of  the  money,  running  into 
the  billions,  was  raised  by  Liberty  Loans  (that  is,  by  the 
sale  of  interest-bearing  bonds  to  the  people)  and  also  by  the 
sale  of  War  Savings  Stamps.  The  great  mass  of  the  people 
joined  in  buying  bonds,  large  and  small,  the  government 
having  made  provision  for  little  bonds  of  the  denomina 
tion  of  $50.  It  is  estimated  that  there  were  4,500,000 
subscribers  to  the  First  Liberty  Loan  and  21,000,000  to  the 
Fourth  Loan.  In  spite  of  the  heavy  taxes  and  the  sale 
of  bonds  and  stamps,  the  people  gave  hundreds  of  millions 
to  the  Red  Cross,  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association, 
the  Knights  of  Columbus,  the  Jewish  agencies,  and  other 
great  war  work  associations. 

Food  and  War  Supplies.  —  In  order  to  furnish  adequate 
supplies  to  the  troops  and  aid  in  the  fair  distribution  of 
food  and  fuel  among  the  people  at  home,  Congress  enacted, 
on  August  10,  1917,  a  drastic  food  and  fuel  control  law. 
This  law  forbade  (i)  the  willful  destruction  of  the  neces- 


THE  GREAT  WAR  629 

saries  of  life  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  prices;  (2)  re 
stricting  and  hoarding  food  supplies  and  committing  waste ; 
(3)  attempting  to  monopolize  supplies  or  to  limit  facilities 
for  producing  or  transporting  supplies ;  and  (4)  limiting 
manufacture  with  a  view  to  increasing  prices.  The  Presi 
dent  of  the  United  States  was  authorized  (i)  to  requisi 
tion  food  or  other  supplies  for  the  support  of  the  army  and 
navy ;  (2)  to  lay  down  rules  governing  the  marketing  of 
.foodstuffs;  (3)  to  fix  the  price  of  wheat;  (4)  to  seize  and 
operate,  if  necessary,  factories,  mines,  packing  houses,  and 
other  plants ;  (5)  to  fix  the  prices  of  supplies  for  military 
purposes ;  and  (6)  to  fix  the  price  of  coal  and  coke.  Mr. 
Herbert  Hoover,  who  had  won  fame  in  Belgian  relief  work, 
was  made  national  food  administrator. 

Labor.  —  As  President  Wilson  declared  early  in  the  war, 
"  the  men  who  remain  to  till  the  soil  and  man  the  factories 
are  no  less  a  part  of  the  army  that  is  in  France  than  the  men 
beneath  the  battle  flags."  For  this  reason  he  appealed  to 
American  labor  to  man  the  factories  and  mines  with  un 
interrupted  vigor.  He  pledged  his  word  that  the  condi 
tions  of  labor  would  not  be  made  more  onerous  and  that 
steps  taken  to  improve  labor  conditions  would  not  be  blocked 
or  checked.  Mr.  Samuel  Gompers,  speaking  for  the  Amer 
ican  Federation,  pledged  the  loyal  support  of  organized 
labor.  A  National  War  Labor  Board,  headed  by  Ex- 
President  Taft  and  Mr.  Frank  Walsh,  was  created  for  the 
purpose  of  adjusting,  by  arbitration  and  conciliation,  the 
disputes  arising  in  industry. 

Railways  and  Shipping.  -  -  The  problem  of  transporting 
guns,  ammunition,  and  other  supplies  to  the  Eastern  sea 
ports  for  shipment  beyond  the  seas  and  of  supplying  factories 
with  materials  and  cities  with  food  presented  grave  diffi 
culties.  On  April  n,  1917,  the  great  railway  companies 
joined  in  a  plan  to  unite  all  their  lines  in  aid  of  the  govern- 


630        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

ment.  In  December  of  that  year  the  railways  were  placed 
under  government  control  and  operation  by  presidential 
proclamation.  In  March,  1918,  Congress  passed  a  railroad 
control  bill  providing  the  terms  and  conditions  under 
which  the  government  was  to  operate  the  roads  during  the 
war  and  for  a  period  of  21  months  after  the  proclamation 
of  peace.  In  July,  1918,  the  express  companies  were  brought 
under  government  supervision ;  in  August,  the  telephone 
and  telegraph  companies  were  taken  over;  and  later  the 
cable  lines  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  government. 

Shipping  was  of  course  of  equal  importance  with  rail 
ways,  and  the  President  was  authorized  by  law  to  buy  and 
build  ships  practically  without  limit.  Every  available 
shipyard  was  brought  into  immediate  service  and  new  yards 
were  built.  In  a  little  while  the  launching  of  ships  for  ocean 
carrying  was  a  daily  occurrence.  At  the  time  of  the  dec 
laration  of  war  all  German  ships  in  American  waters  had 
been  seized.  In  April,  1918,  President  Wilson  added  to  the 
government's  strength  by  taking  over  all  the  ships  engaged 
in  coastwise  traffic  and  placing  them  under  government 
management.  In  spite  of  all  our  efforts,  however,  we 
were  compelled  to  depend  to  a  large  extent  upon  British 
ships  to  transport  our  soldiers  and  supplies  beyond  the 
seas. 

The  Insurance  Act.  —  Congress  passed  in  October,  1917, 
an  insurance  act  appropriating  huge  sums  of  money  to  be 
used  for  three  main  purposes  :  (i)  to  pay  allowances  to 
the  families  of  soldiers  and  sailors  dependent  upon  their 
earnings ;  (2)  to  compensate  officers  and  enlisted  men 
for  disabilities  incurred  in  the  war,  or  their  families  in  case 
of  death  ;  (3)  and  to  provide  a  relatively  inexpensive  system 
of  insurance  for  those  in  active  service,  enabling  them  to 
make  further  provisions  for  themselves  or  those  left  behind. 

The    Espionage    Law. — On    June    15,     1917,    Congress 


THE  GREAT  WAR  631 

passed  a  drastic  law  providing  punishment  for  those  who 
communicated  information  to  foreign  nations  to  the  injury 
of  the  United  States,  made  false  reports  with  a  view  to  inter 
fering  with  our  military  and  naval  operations,  attempted 
to  cause  disloyalty,  refused  duty  in  the  military  and  naval 
forces,  or  obstructed  the  recruiting  and  enlistment  services 
of  the  United  States.  This  law  was  vigorously  enforced,  not 
only  against  those  who  sympathized  with  the  enemies  of 
the  United  States,  but  also  against  Socialists  and  others 
who  opposed  the  war  or  criticized  the  government  for 
entering  the  war.  Among  the  prominent  men  convicted 
under  the  law  were  Eugene  V.  Debs,  a  former  Socialist 
candidate  for  President  (pp.  515  and  519),  and  Victor 
Berger,  of  Wisconsin,  a  former  member  of  Congress. 

The  Alien  and  Foreign  Born.  —  During  the  preparations 
for  the  great  conflict  the  question  naturally  arose  as  to 
whether  the  country  could  really  count  upon  the  allegiance 
of  citizens  of  alien  origin.  It  was  forcibly  driven  home 
that  the  easy-going  policy  of  free  immigration  had  brought 
into  the  country  millions  of  aliens  who  cared  nothing  about 
the  nation  and  took  no  interest  in  its  government.  It  was 
realized  also  that  citizens  of  alien  origin  could  not  be  expected 
to  surrender  altogether  their  affection  for  their  native  lands, 
and  stand  as  wholly  impartial  judges  in  time  of  international 
controversies  and  wars.  Congress,  appreciating  as  never 
before  the  need  of  restricting  immigration  to  those  who  can 
be  counted  upon  as  American  citizens,  passed  in  1917,  over 
the  President's  veto,  a  law  imposing  a  literacy  test  on  aliens 
coming  into  this  country  in  the  future. 

It  was  a  severe  test  that  was  imposed  upon  the  Americans 
of  German  origin  during  this  period.  Their  fathers,  sons, 
and  brothers  were  falling  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  American 
manufacturers  were,  from  the  first,  helping  to  furnish  the 
instruments  of  death.  Although  disapproving  in  many  cases 


632         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

the  invasion  of  Belgium  or  the  destruction  of  the  Lbsitania, 
they  could  not  look  with  composure  upon  the  possible  de 
feat  and  ruin  of  Germany.  With  the  entrance  of  the  United 
States  into  the  conflict,  there  was  uncertainty  as  to  the 
stand  which  these  citizens  would  take ;  but  President  Wilson 
was  right  when  he  said  "  they  are,  most  of  them,  as  true 
and  loyal  Americans  as  if  they  had  never  known  any  other 
fealty  or  allegiance." 

Although  some  leading  foreign-language  newspapers 
scarcely  concealed  their  hopes  for  a  German  victory,  the 
mass  of  their  readers  accepted  the  grave  responsibilities 
which  the  war  imposed  upon  them.  When  the  agents  of 
the  German  imperial  government  were  removed  from  the 
country,  the  most  serious  disturbances  from  German  sources 
disappeared.  Thousands  of  Germans,  particularly  the  de 
scendants  of  those  who  more  than  sixty  years  ago  had  fled 
before  the  tyranny  of  Prussia,  openly  rejoiced  in  the  prospect 
of  overthrowing  the  Hohenzollern  military  power,  although 
they  naturally  grieved  at  the  thought  of  ruin  to  the  German 
nation.  Those  who  feared  serious  internal  disturbances 
from  Americans  of  German  birth  were  happily  disappointed. 
Only  the  Socialist  party  officially  went  on  record  as  oppos 
ing  the  government  in  the  war,  and  it  was  rent  in  twain, 
many  of  its  prominent  leaders  withdrawing  and  denouncing 
its  conduct  as  unintelligent  and  treasonable. 

Americans  on  the  High  Seas  and  Battle  Front.  —  At  the 
earliest  moment  after  the  declaration  of  war  the  government 
took  steps  looking  to  speedy  action  against  the  Germans 
on  land  and  sea.  At  home  naval  contingents  patroled 
the  coast  waters  guarding  ports  and  shipping  against  sub 
marines.  Other  naval  contingents,  under  Admiral  Sims, 
were  sent  abroad  to  cooperate  with  the  Allied  navies 
against  German  sea  power,  while  other  forces  helped  in  the 
convoy  of  troop  and  supply  ships  across  the  ocean. 


THE  GREAT  WAR 


633 


Preparations  were  likewise  made  for  war  on  land.  General 
John  J.  Pershing  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the 
American  Expeditionary  Forces.  In  May,  1917,  President 
Wilson  directed  the  dispatch  of  a  force  to  France,  and  in 
June  General  Pershing  and  his  staff  arrived  in  Paris.  During 
the  latter  part  of  that  month  American  troops  began  to 


WESTERN  BATTLE  FRONT 
July  15,   1918 


pour  into  France  and  go  into  training  for  their  duties  at  the 
front.  On  October  27  it  was  announced  that  they  had 
fired  their  first  shot  in  trench  warfare.  Most  of  the  winter, 
however,  was  spent  in  training.  By  March  21,  1918,  the 
day  when  the  great  German  drive  on  Paris  began,  there 
were  four  divisions  of  men  ready  to  meet  the  demands  of 
battle  action. 

On   March    28   General    Pershing   placed    the   American 
troops   at  the  disposal  of  Marshal   Foch,   chief  of  all  the 


634        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

forces  fighting  in  France  against  the  Germans.  The  Amer 
icans  speedily  distinguished  themselves  in  the  Montdidier 
section  and  at  Cantigny.  In  July,  when  the  Germans 
seemed  almost  on  the  point  of  taking  Paris,  the  Americans 
at  Chateau-Thierry  and  along  the  Marne  helped  the  heroic 
French  turn  the  tide  of  battle,  which  then  began  to  roll 
steadily  northward. 

The  first  American  offensive  on  a  large  scale  opened  at  the 
St.  Mihiel  salient,  which  was  crushed  in  during  September, 
1918.  From  that  time  forward,  American  soldiers  continued 
their  main  work  at  the  Meuse-Argonne  section  of  the  line, 
where,  by  stubborn  and  dogged  fighting  against  the  most 
determined  resistance,  they  steadily  drove  the  Germans 
back,  as  the  French  and  English  were  rolling  up  the  north 
western  end  of  the  line  into  Belgium.  Of  the  conduct  of 
the  American  men  on  the  field  of  battle  nothing  finer  has 
been  said  than  was  said  by  General  Pershing  in  his  report  of 
December,  1918  :  '  When  I  think  of  their  heroism,  their 
patience  under  hardships,  their  unflinching  spirit  of  offensive 
action,  I  am  filled  with  emotion  which  I  am  unable  to 
express.  Their  deeds  are  immortal,  and  they  have  earned 
the  eternal  gratitude  of  our  country." 

The  Russian  Revolution.  -  -  The  struggle  on  the  western 
battle  front  was  made  all  the  more  severe  for  the  Allies  and 
the  Americans  by  the  withdrawal  of  Russia  from  the  war. 
In  March,  1917,  the  Czar  was  overthrown  by  a  revolution. 
In  November  the  moderate  government  which  followed  the 
autocracy  was  in  turn  overthrown  by  the  radical  Socialists 
known  as  the  Bolsheviki,  who  made  peace  with  the  Germans, 
giving  up  great  portions  of  the  former  Czar's  dominions. 
In  August,  1918,  the  United  States  joined  England,  Japan, 
and  France  in  sending  troops  into  Russia  to  protect  supplies. 

Steps  Looking  toward  Peace.  —  While  the  war  was  being 
won  on  the  battle  field,  there  was  carried  on  a  steady  ex- 


THE  GREAT  WAR  635 

change  of  views  between  the  warring  countries  and  a  con 
tinuous  discussion  of  ways  and  means  for  preventing  wars 
in  the  future.  On  inquiry  it  was  found  that  trade  and 
commercial  rivalry  among  nations  was  one  of  the  fruitful 
sources  of  war  in  all  ages.  Nations  with  various  climates 
and  natural  resources  inevitably  turn  to  the  exchange  of 
goods,  and  the  enterprising  merchants  and  manufacturers 
of  each  country  seek  markets  far  and  wide.  The  question 
then  resolved  itself  to  this  :  "  Shall  each  country  pursue 
its  own  way,  gaining  trade  and  commerce  at  all  costs  - 
using  the  sword  to  compel  other  people  to  buy  its  goods  and 
to  drive  out  competitors;  or  shall  there  be  some  agreement 
among  nations  as  to  the  rules  by  which  trade  can  be  con 
ducted  and  backward  countries  managed,  so  preventing 
recourse  to  arms  ?  "  The  cost  of  the  war,  sweeping  away 
the  commercial  gains  of  generations,  made  people  think  about 
this  more  seriously  than  ever.  When  it  was  possible  to 
seize  a  colony  or  conquer  a  province  by  sending  out  a  small 
expedition  no  one  thought  much  about  it ;  but  when  Ger 
many  let  loose  a  world  war  by  drawing  the  sword  to  conquer 
territory  and  win  markets  the  attention  of  mankind  was 
forcibly  drawn  to  the  necessity  of  a  new  kind  of  agreement. 
President  Wilson  early  grasped  the  significance  of  the  re 
lation  of  commercial  rivalry  and  territorial  ambitions  to  war, 
and  pressed  the  matter  upon  the  attention  of  his  countrymen 
and  of  the  entire  world.  In  calling  upon  Congress  to  take 
up  arms  in  national  defense  against  German  aggression, 
he  firmly  declared  that  the  United  States  desired  no  con 
quest,  no  dominion,  no  indemnities  for  itself,  no  material 
compensation.  Again  in  his  message  to  Russia  in  May, 
1917,  he  reiterated  this  declaration,  saying:  ''  No  people 
must  be  forced  to  live  under  a  sovereignty  under  which  it 
does  not  wish  to  live.  No  territory  must  change  hands 
except  for  the  purpose  of  securing  those  who  inhabit  it  a 


636        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

fair  chance  of  life  and  liberty.  No  indemnities  must  be 
insisted  on  except  those  that  constitute  payments  for 
manifest  wrongs  done.  .  .  .  And  then  the  free  people  of 
the  world  must  draw  together  in  some  common  covenant, 
some  genuine  and  practical  cooperation  that  will  in  effect 
combine  their  force  to  secure  peace  and  justice  in  the  deal 
ings  of  nations  with  one  another." 

In  his  message  to  Congress  on  January  8,  1918,  President 
Wilson  laid  down  his  famous  "  Fourteen  Points,5'  constitut 
ing  the  war  aims  of  the  United  States,  and  thus  informed 
Germany  and  Austria  of  our  principles  and  policies.  These 
he  later  supplemented.  In  brief,  President  Wilson's  war 
aims  may  be  summarized  as  follows  :  the  abolition  of  secret 
treaties  between  nations,  freedom  of  navigation  upon  the 
seas,  equality  of  trade  conditions  among  nations,  reduction 
of  armaments  to  the  lowest  point  consistent  with  domestic 
safety,  fair  adjustment  of  colonial  claims,  restoration  of 
Russian  territory  taken  away  by  Germany  and  freedom  for 
Russia  to  develop  "  institutions  of  her  own  choosing," 
restoration  of  Belgium,  righting  the  wrong  done  by  Germany 
to  France  in  1871  in  the  matter  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  readjust 
ment  of  the  frontiers  of  Italy  along  lines  of  nationality, 
bringing  under  Italian  government  Italian  peoples  now 
under  other  rule,  restoration  of  Serbia,  Roumania,  and 
Montenegro,  security  for  other  nations  now  under  Turkish 
rule,  freedom  of  navigation  of  the  Dardanelles,  an  indepen 
dent  Poland,  and  a  league  of  nations  bound  together  in  a 
common  brotherhood  to  guarantee  political  independence 
and  territorial  integrity  to  great  and  small  states  alike. 

Although  President  Wilson  was  making  clear  to  the  world 
the  principles  upon  which  he  believed  the  war  could  be 
brought  to  an  end  and  a  lasting  peace  concluded,  he  ad 
vocated  force  to  the  utmost  on  the  battle  field  until  Ger 
man  military  autocracy  was  overthrown.  On  September  19, 


THE  GREAT  WAR  637 

1918,  the  world  was  startled  by  the  news  that  Bulgaria 
had  surrendered  unconditionally  to  the  Allies,  thus  breaking 
the  eastern  front  of  the  Teutonic  powers.  On  October  5 
the  German  chancellor  asked  the  President  to  take  steps 
looking  toward  a  truce  and  peace.  For  a  month  negotia 
tions  went  on,  Germany  becoming  more  and  more  anxious  , 
as  her  armies  were  being  roundly  beaten  on  the  field  of 
battle.  At  last,  on  November  1 1,  an  armistice  was  signed 
bringing  the  war  to  a  close  amid  such  rejoicing  as  the  world 
had  never  seen.  In  a  few  days  the  German  Kaiser  was  forced 
to  abdicate,  the  Crown  Prince  to  flee,  and  the  German 
autocracy  came  crashing  to  the  ground.  On  December  4 
President  Wilson  set  sail  for  Europe  to  attend  the  grand 
conference  of  the  powers  at  which  the  final  terms  of  peace 
were  to  be  made.  Thus  the  New  World  answered  the 
challenge  of  the  Old. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.    What   events  were  the  immediate  causes  of  the  Great 
War?     What  eight  nations  were  first  involved  in  the  fighting? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  neutrality  in  war  ?     Why  was  it  difficult  for 
the  American  people  to  be  strictly  neutral?     3.    Name  some  of 
the  important  "munitions"  of  war.     Why  was  an  embargo  on  the 
export  of  munitions  from  the  United  States  impossible  ? 

II.  I.    What  led  to  the   sinking  of  merchant  vessels  by  Ger 
many  ?     How  did  this  submarine  warfare  differ  from  the  inter 
ference  with  an  enemy's  commerce  in  earlier  wars  ?     2.    Why  did 
the    sinking   of  the    Lusitania   especially    anger   the   Americans  ? 
What  steps  did  President  Wilson  take  as  a  result  of  this  event  ? 

3.  Who  were  the  important  candidates  for  the  presidency  in  1916  ? 
Name  the  principal  issues  of  the  campaign.     What  were  some  of 
the  unexpected  results  of  the  election  ? 

III.  i.    Why   did    President   Wilson   dismiss   von    Bernstorff? 
2.    What  is  meant  by  "intrigue"  ?     State  some  of  the  ways  in 
which  Germany  plotted  against  the  Americans  even  before  war 
was  declared  between  the  two  countries.     When  was  war  finally 
declared  ? 


638         THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN  PEOPLE 

IV.  I.    What  is  meant  by  an  "  autocracy  "  ?     How  does  autoc 
racy  in  government  differ  from  democracy  ?     2.    Name  some  of  the 
advantages  of  living  in  a  democratic  country  as  compared  with 
living  under  an  autocratic  ruler.     3.    Why  is  it  necessary  for  the 
free  peoples  of  the  world  to  crush  the  "militarism"  of  the  German 
empire  ? 

V.  i.    What  is  meant  by  a  military  "draft"?     When  before 
in  our  history  have  armies  been  raised  in  this  way  ?      (See  Chapter 
XXI.)     2.    What  is  the  justification  for  using  this  method  of  rais 
ing  an  army  in  a  democracy?     3.    What  steps  did  Congress  take 
to  provide  money  for  carrying  on  the  war  ?     4.    What  provision  did 
Congress  make  to  provide  adequate  food  and  fuel  supplies  during 
the    war  ?     Why    was    this    necessary  ?     5.    How    did    organized 
labor  help  win  the  war  ?     By  what  method  were  industrial  disputes 
settled  during  the  war  ?     6.    Why  were  the  railroads  placed  under 
government  control  during  the  war  ?     What  action  was  taken  for 
the  control  of  express  companies,  telephone  and  telegraph  lines  ? 
Why  ?     7.    How  was  ship  building  encouraged  ?     Why  ?     8.    For 
what  purposes  was  an  insurance  act  passed  by  Congress  ?     9.  Why 
was  it  necessary  to  pass  the  Espionage  Law?     10.    What  was  the 
attitude    toward    the    war    of    most    foreign-born    citizens?     II. 
Relate  briefly  America's  part  in  the  war.     12.    Trace  briefly  the 
steps  leading  to   peace.     13.    State  briefly  the    main  features  of 
President  Wilson's  "Fourteen  Points." 


PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  The  Franco-Prussian  War  of  1870-1871  had  a  very  important 
bearing  upon  the  Great  War.     A  brief  account  of  this  earlier  war 
will  be  found  in  Guerber's  "Story  of  Modern  France,"  pp.  294-309. 

2.  Name  some  of  the  important  differences  between  the  Great 
War  and  the  other  wars  that  this  country  has  fought. 

3.  Read  the  War  Address  of  President  Wilson,  and  other  re 
lated  addresses.     See  "From  Washington  to  Wilson,"  Macmillan 
Pocket  Classics. 

4.  Let  each  member  of  the  class  look  up  and  report  on   one  of 
the  following  topics  :  Chateau-Thierry,  the  taking  of  the  Argonne 
Forest,  the  American  advance  to  the  Rhine. 

5.  Look  up  important  facts  about  some  of  the  principal  leaders 
of  the  American  military  and  naval  forces. 


OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW  639 

6.    Look  up  the  new  methods  of  warfare  employed  in  this  war, 
such  as  the  use  of  aircraft,  tanks,  gas,  submarines. 


OUTLINE  FOR  REVIEW  OF  THE  RECENT  EVENTS  AND  THE   GREAT 
WAR  (CHAPTERS  XXXI,  XXXII,  XXXIII) 

I.    The  New  Democracy. 

A.  Causes  of  the  increasing  interest  in    the  machinery  of 

government. 

1.  Popular  education 

2.  Wrongdoing  on  the  part  of  public  officers. 

3.  Criticism  of  faithless  officials. 

4.  Problems  of  the  cities. 

5.  The  education  and  employment  of  women. 

B.  Political  reforms. 

1.  Civil-service  reform. 

2.  Ballot  reform. 

3.  The  initiative,  referendum,  and  recall. 

4.  The  "commission"  form  of  city  government. 

5.  The  "city-manager"  plan. 

6.  Reforms  in  the  organization  of  political  parties. 

7.  The  direct  primary. 

8.  Woman  suffrage. 

I.    The  early  years  of  the  twentieth  century. 

A.  Roosevelt  a  new  type  of  president. 

B.  The  conservation  movement. 

1.  Its  leaders. 

2.  The  Reclamation  Act. 

3.  The  Forest  Reserves. 

C.  The  Panama  Canal. 

1.  Early  history. 

2.  Treaty  with  Great  Britain. 

3.  Dispute  over  routes. 

4.  The   Panama   "revolution"    and   the  cession  of  the 

Canal  Zone. 

5.  The  building  and  opening  of  the  canal. 

D.  Foreign  affairs. 

1.  The  Treaty  of  Portsmouth. 

2.  The  journey  of  the  fleet  around  the  world. 

E.  The  election  of  1908. 


640        THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PEOPLE 


F.    Taft's  administration. 

1.  Tariff  revision  and  the  income  tax. 

2.  Postal  savings  banks. 

3.  The  parcel  post. 

4.  Dissolution  of  the  "trusts." 
The  campaign  of  1912. 

1.  Dissatisfaction  with  Republican  rule. 

2.  The  organization  of  the  Progressive  party. 

3.  The  nomination  of  Woodrow  Wilson  by  the  Demo 

crats. 
H.    Wilson's  first  administration. 

1.  New   laws:    tariff,   income    tax,    anti-trust,    Federal 

Reserve  banks. 

2.  Troubles  with  Mexico. 

a.  Civil  war  in  Mexico. 

b.  The  Vera  Cruz  expedition. 

c.  The  difficulties  with  Villa. 

3.  American  protectorates  in  Haiti  and  San  Domingo. 

4.  The  purchase  of  the  Virgin  Islands. 
III.    The  Great  War. 

A.  Europe  on  fire. 

B.  American  neutrality. 

1.  The  President's  proclamation. 

2.  Reasons  for  American  neutrality. 

3.  Difficulties  in  the  way  of  strict  neutrality. 

C.  The  submarine  outrages. 

1.  The  Lusitania  torpedoed  and  sunk. 

2.  America's  protest  and  Germany's  agreement  to  modify 

her  practices. 

D.  The  campaign  of  1916:   President  Wilson  reflected. 

E.  War  with  Germany  and  Austria. 

1.  Germany  renews  unrestricted  submarine  warfare. 

2.  German  intrigue  in  the  United  States. 

3.  War  declared. 

F.  The  German  autocracy. 

1.  Nature  of  the  German  empire. 

2.  Prussia  practically  an  absolute  monarchy. 

3.  The    Hohenzollern    rule    and    its    dreams    of    world 

domination. 

4.  The  need  of  crushing  German  militarism. 


OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW  641 

G.    A  democracy  at  war. 

1.  The  draft. 

2.  War  taxes. 

3.  National  control  of  food,  fuel,  and  transportation. 

4.  Adjustment  of  industrial  disputes. 

5.  Encouragement  of  ship  building. 

6.  Soldiers'  insurance. 

7.  Americans  on  the  high  seas  and  on  the  battle  front. 

8.  Steps  leading  up  to  the  armistice. 

Important  names  : 

Presidents:    Roosevelt  (1901-1909),  Taft  (1909-1913),  Wilson 

)• 
Important  dates  :   1914;  April  6,  1917;  Nov.  n,  1918. 


IMPORTANT    HISTORICAL    EVENTS   ARRANGED    BY    PRESIDENTIAI 
ADMINISTRATIONS 

1.  Washington,  George       (1789-1797)  Adams,  John 
Topics:    Founding  the  Federal  Government,  p.  181 ;   Amend 
ments  to  the  Constitution,  first  ten,  p.  181 ;   Measures  pro 
posed  by  Hamilton,  pp.  182-185  ;   Rise  of  two  great  political 
parties,  pp.   186-187;    Trouble  with  France  and  England, 
pp.  187,  188;    Invention  of  cotton  gin,  p.  291;    Washing 
ton's  Farewell  Address,  p.  189. 

2.  Adams,  John  (1797-1801)  Jefferson,  Thomas 
Topics:    Troubles  with  France,  p.   190;    Alien  and  Sedition 

Laws,  pp.  190,  191. 

T    rr  T-I  \  BuiT,    Aai'Ott 

3.  Jefferson,  Thomas         (1801-1809)  {  f^r  o 

[Clinton,  George 

Topics:  Twelfth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution,  p.  192; 
Agricultural  development  of  the  country,  pp.  197^  198; 
Purchase  of  Louisiana  (1803),  pp.  198-203;  Lewis  and 
Clark  Expedition,  p.  203  ;  Explorations  of  Pike,  pp.  203- 
205  ;  The  first  steamboat  (1807),  p.  302 ;  Trouble  with  Eng 
land  and  France,  pp.  229-233. 

TV,   j.          T  [Clinton,  George 

4.  Machson,  James  ( Gerry,  Etbridge 

Topics:  War  with  England,  pp.  234-239;  Hartford  Conven 
tion,  p.  236;  Beginning  of  the  struggle  of  the  Spanish- 
American  countries  for  freedom,  pp.  240,  241  ;  Tariff  of 
1816,  p.  249;  Financial  panic,  p.  250. 

5.  Monroe,  James  (1817-1825)  Tompkins,  Daniel  D. 
Topics:   Purchase  of  Florida,  p.  206;   Monroe  Doctrine,  pp. 

242-243  ;    Missouri  Compromise,  pp.  254,  368,  369. 

6.  Adams,  John  Quincy    (1825-1829)  Calhoun,  John  C. 
Topics:    The  tariff    question,   p.   253;    Opening  of  the   Erie 

Canal  (1825),  p.  299;    First  railway,  p.  304. 

7.  Jackson,  Andrew  (1829-1837)  [Calhoun,  John  C. 

[Van  Buren,  Martin 

Topics :  The  "Spoils  System,"  p.  255  ;  The  tariff,  pp.  256,  259; 
The  doctrine  of  nullification,  pp.  256-259;  Controversy 

642 


IMPORTANT   HISTORICAL   EVENTS  643 

over   the   United    States    Bank,    pp.    260,    261  ;     Texas    asks 
admission,  p.  272 ;    Improvement  in  farm  machinery,  p.   296. 

8.  Van  Buren,  Martin       (1837-1841)  Johnson,  Richard  M. 
Topic  :    Panic  of  1837,  p.  261. 

9.  Harrison,  William  Henry,  and  Tyler,  John  (1841-1845) 
Topics:     The    tariff   of    1842,    p.    263;     Webster-Ashburton 

Treaty,  p.  263  ;  Admission  of  Texas,  p.  274 ;  Invention  of 
the  telegraph,  p.  307. 

10.    Polk,  James  K.  (1845-1849)  Dallas,  George  M. 

Topics  :  The  Mexican  War,  pp.  263,  264;  The  Oregon  bound 
ary,  pp.  278,  279  ;  First  Women's  Rights  Convention,  p.  336. 
jr.    Taylor,  Zachary,  and  Fillmore,  Millard  (1849-1853) 

Topics  :  The  Compromise  of  1850,  p.  376;  The  admission  of 
California,  pp.  281,  282,  375. 

12.  Pierce,  Franklin  (1853-1857)  King,  William  R. 
Topics  :   Laying  the  Atlantic  cable,  p.  308  ;   The  organization 

of  labor,  p.  320;   Kansas-Nebraska  Act  (1854),  pp.  379,  380. 

13.  Buchanan,  James         (1857-1861)  Breckenridge,  John  C. 
Topics:     Dred    Scott   Decision   (1857),   pp.   381,   382;    John 

Brown's  Raid,  p.  383  ;  Lincoln-Douglas  debate,  pp.  382, 
383;  The  first  secession,  p.  390;  The  formation  of  the 
''Confederate  States  of  America,"  p.  391. 

14.  Lincoln,  Abraham         (1861-1865)  Hamlin,  Hannibal 
Topics :   The  second  group  of  states  secedes,  p.  395  ;  The  Civil 

War:  Preparation  for.  pp.  395-398;  Campaigns,  pp.  398- 
423;  War  on  the  water,  p.  408;  Emancipation,  p.  403; 
Development  of  industries,  pp.  472-477. 

15.  Lincoln,  Abraham,  and  Johnson,  Andrew  (1865-1869) 
Topics:    Close  of  the  war,  p.  422;    Assassination  of  Lincoln 

(April  14,  1865),  p.  422;  Cost  of  the  war,  p.  423  ;  Recon 
struction,  pp.  430-434;  Amendment  of  the  Constitution,  p. 
432;  Impeachment  of  Johnson,  p.  434;  Rise  of  the  New 
South,  p.  442  ;  Industrial  development  of  the  North,  p.  477. 

,6.    (SSSTUlysses  S.  (.869-1877)  { ^on',  Hetf 

Topics:  Reconstruction  problems,  pp.  434,  440;  Amendment 
to  the  Constitution,  p.  434;  Rise  of  the  New  South,  pp. 
442-453  ;  Industrial  development,  pp.  472-492 ;  The  prob 
lem  of  silver  money,  p.  528;  Railroad  across  the  Rocky 
Mountains  completed,  p.  479;  Industrial  panic,  p.  492, 
Arbitration  agreement,  p.  539. 


644        THE   HISTORY  OF  THE   AMERICAN   PEOPLE 

17.  Hayes,  Rutherford  B.  (1877-1881)  Wheeler,  William  A. 
Topics:    Problems    of   immigration,    p.    505;    Great    strikes, 

p.  514;  Invention  of  the  electric  light  and  telephone, 
p.  484. 

18.  Garfield,  James  A.,  and  Arthur,  Chester  A.  (1881-1885) 
Topics:  The  assassination  of  Garfield  (Sept.  19,  1881),  p.  523  ; 

The  tariff  of  1883,  pp.  524,  525;    Civil-service  reform,  p. 

535- 

19.  Cleveland,  Grover         (1885-1889)         Hendricks,  Thomas  A. 
Topics:  The  tariff  issue,  pp.  524,  525;    Interstate  Commerce 

Law,  p.  532. 

20.  Harrison,  Benjamin       (1889-1893)  Morton,  Levi  P. 
Topics:  The  tariff  of  1890,  p.  525  ;  Trust  legislation,  the  Sher 
man  Law,  p.  533. 

21.  Cleveland,  Grover         (1893-1897)  Stevenson,  Adlai  E. 
Topics:   The  tariff  revision,  p.  526;   The  Venezuela  affair,  p. 

540;   The  Hawaiian  question,  p.  541. 

22.  McKinley,  William        (1897-1901)  Hobart,  Garret  A. 
Topics:  Annexation  of  Hawaii,  p.  542;   Cuban  revolt  against 

Spain,  p.  544;  War  with  Spain  (1898),  pp.  545,  551;  Ac 
quisition  of  Philippines,  Porto  Rico,  Guam,  pp.  549,  551; 
The  Boxer  Rebellion,  p.  552;  The  silver  question,  p.  529. 

23.  McKinley,  William,  and  Roosevelt,  Theodore  (1901-1905) 
Topics:   The  assassination  of  McKinley,  p.  588;   The  Conser 
vation  Movement,  pp.  589,  590;    Reclamation  Act,  p.  590. 

24.  Roosevelt,  Theodore     (1905-1909)         Fairbanks,  Charles  W. 
Topics:    First  legislation,  p.   588;    Conservation  Movement, 

PP-  591*  592;  The  Panama  Canal  project,  pp.  593-595; 
Russo-Japanese  Peace,  p.  596;  Journey  of  the  fleet  around 
the  world,  p.  600. 

25.  Taft,  William  Howard  (1909-1913)  Sherman,  James  S. 
Topics:   Revision  of  the  tariff,  p.  598;   Income  tax  proposed, 

p.  398;  Postal  Savings  Banks  established,  p.  599;  Parcel 
post  discussed,  p.  597;  Formation  of  the  Progressive  party, 
p.  601  ;  Trouble  with  Mexico,  p.  60. 

26.  Wilson,  Woodrow         (1913-         )  Marshall,  Thomas  R. 
Topics :    Six  new  laws,  pp.  602,  603  ;   Troubles  with  Mexico, 

p.  601  ;  American  interests  in  the  Caribbean,  pp.  605,  606; 
Woman  Suffrage  Movement,  p.  582;  The  Great  War,  pp. 
609-637. 


THE   PRESIDENTS   AND  VICE   PRESIDENTS 


645 


a 

S        d  d  >>  £ 
S        S5  t  O 

g^.S.S^H 
•S^nUUuQ 

«|dS^T5 
^ISSS'S'S 

o-C  rt  <L>  d>:r;  rt 

h2,H<oowQ 


•*2  .^        ..-H        •  »•« 


a     g,S£| 


a  -• 

o    C 


in  tfl  </> 

C   C   C 


oo  fi  tn 

•*-»  rt  -M 


d  d 
c,  ex 


§1       111 

5  a         aa  c 


*  3- 


T3  oo     '  co     „    '     '          „       jn'    ' 
'  *  •'•     '  «-j?    '     '       ^      -f    ' 


.^cg 


c;C>         ro         H-toOC\c3         t^-M 


i  §  I     I     IS 


•  g  g     g     m-  g     g  §  er  g  g  g  g 


)  OO         COOCOOOOOOOOCO         CO         O0< 


G 
Jo 
T 


§  g<  |  wb  -: 

^  ^o>  ^  "d  St^! 

S  8;:  £  §JJ^! 

g  g  s  ~o  J^—    ' 

^  ,42,  <  Si 


70 

g 
J 

S 

1- 


ss*Pi« 


^ 


II 

T3O      •    4>^    UkS        M        ^J^ 

o  j<U.Su^      £J     ffi  £ 

»  I  |i  lipl^l  •§  II 

i    JS    •§>>     3p2£2?    ^    || 
^    <     <£     rt^UOpqO^     H     ^^ 


APPENDIX 

DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 

In  Congress,  July  4,  1776 
THE  UNANIMOUS  DECLARATION  OF  THE  THIRTEEN  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA, 

WHEN  in  the  Course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary  for  one  people  to 
dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected  them  with  another,  and  to 
assume  among  the  Powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate  and  equal  station  to  which 
the  Laws  of  Nature  and  of  Nature's  God  entitle  them,  a  decent  respect  to  the 
opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they  should  declare  the  causes  which  impel 
them  to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident,  that  all  men  are  created  equal,  that 
they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain  unalienable  Rights,  that  among 
these  are  Life,  Liberty  and  the  pursuit  of  Happiness.  That  to  secure  these  rights, 
Governments  are  instituted  among  Men,  deriving  their  just  powers  from  the  con 
sent  of  the  governed,  That  whenever  any  Form  of  Government  becomes  destruc 
tive  of  these  ends  it  is  the  Right  of  the  People  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it,  and  to  insti 
tute  new  Government,  laying  its  foundation  on  such  principles  and  organizing  its 
powers  in  such  form,  as  to  them  shall  seem  most  likely  to  effect  their  Safety  and 
Happiness.  Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate  that  Governments  long  established 
should  not  be  changed  for  light  and  transient  causes ;  and  accordingly  all  experi 
ence  hath  shown,  that  mankind  are  more  disposed  to  suffer,  while  evils  are  suffer- 
able,  than  to  right  themselves  by  abolishing  the  forms  to  which  they  are  accus 
tomed.  But  when  a  long  tram  of  abuses  and  usurpations,  pursuing  invariably 
the  same  Object  evinces  a  design  to  reduce  them  under  absolute  Despotism,  it  is 
their  right,  it  is  their  duty,  to  throw  off  such  Government,  and  to  provide  new 
Guards  for  their  future  security.  —  Such  has  been  the  patient  sufferance  of  these 
Colonies ;  and  such  is  now  the  necessity  which  constrains  them  to  alter  their  former 
Systems  of  Government.  The  history  of  the  present  King  of  Great  Britain  is  a 
history  of  repeated  injuries  and  usurpations,  all  having  in  direct  object  the  estab 
lishment  of  an  absolute  Tyranny  over  these  States.  To  prove  this,  let  Facts  be 
submitted  to  a  candid  world. 

He  has  refused  his  Assent  to  Laws,  the  most  wholesome  and  necessary  for  the 
public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  Governors  to  pass  Laws  of  immediate  and  pressing  impor 
tance,  unless  suspended  in  their  operation  till  his  Assent  should  be  obtained ;  and 
when  so  suspended,  he  has  utterly  neglected  to  attend  to  them. 

647 


648  APPENDIX 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  Laws  for  the  accommodation  of  large  districts  of 
people,  unless  those  people  would  relinquish  the  right  of  Representation  in  the 
Legislature,  a  right  inestimable  to  them  and  formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places  unusual,  uncomfortable, 
and  distant  from  the  depository  of  their  Public  Records,  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
fatiguing  them  into  compliance  with  his  measures. 

He  has  dissolved  Representative  Houses  repeatedly,  for  opposing  with  manly 
firmness  his  invasions  on  the  rights  of  the  people  [p.  128]. 1 

He  has  refused  for  a  long  time,  after  such  dissolutions,  to  cause  others  to  be 
elected;  whereby  the  Legislative  Powers,  incapable  of  Annihilation,  have  returned 
to  the  People  at  large  for  their  exercise;  the  State  remaining  in  the  mean  time 
exposed  to  all  the  dangers  of  invasion  from  without,  and  convulsions  within. 

He  has  endeavoured  to  prevent  the  population  of  these  States;  for  that  pur 
pose  obstructing  the  Laws  for  Naturalization  of  Foreigners ;  refusing  to  pass  others 
to  encourage  their  migration  hither,  and  raising  the  conditions  of  new  Appro 
priations  of  Lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  Administration  of  Justice,  by  refusing  his  Assent  to  Laws 
for  establishing  Judiciary  Powers. 

He  has  made  Judges  dependent  on  his  Will  alone,  for  the  tenure  of  their  offices, 
and  the  amount  and  payment  of  their  salaries. 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  New  Offices,  and  sent  hither  swarms  of  Officers 
to  harass  our  People,  and  eat  out  their  substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us,  in  times  of  peace,  Standing  Armies  without  the  Consent 
of  our  legislature. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  Military  independent  of  and  superior  to  the  Civil 
Power. 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction  foreign  to  our  con 
stitution,  and  unacknowledged  by  our  laws ;  giving  his  Assent  to  their  acts  of  pre 
tended  legislation : 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us  [p.  125] : 

For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  Trial,  from  Punishment  for  any  Murders  which 
they  should  commit  on  the  Inhabitants  of  these  States  : 

For  cutting  off  our  Trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world  [p.  128] : 

For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our  Consent  [pp.  123,  126]: 

For  depriving  us  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefits  of  Trial  by  Jury  [p.  121] : 

For  transporting  us  beyond  Seas  to  be  tried  for  pretended  offences : 

For  abolishing  the  free  System  of  English  Laws  in  a  neighbouring  Province, 
establishing  therein  an  Arbitrary  government,  and  enlarging  its  Boundaries  so  as 
to  render  it  at  once  an  example  and  fit  instrument  for  introducing  the  same  abso 
lute  rule  into  these  Colonies  : 

For  taking  away  our  Charters,  abolishing  our  most  valuable  Laws,  and  altering 
fundamentally  the  Forms  of  our  Governments: 

1  Page  numbers  in  brackets  refer  to  pages  of  the  text. 


APPENDIX  649 


For  suspending  our  own  Legislature,  and  declaring  themselves  invested  with 
Power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cases  whatsoever. 

He  has  abdicated  Government  here,  by  declaring  us  out  of  his  Protection  and 
waging  War  against  us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  Coasts,  burnt  our  towns,  and  destroyed 
the  lives  of  our  people. 

He  is  at  this  time  transporting  large  armies  of  foreign  mercenaries  to  compleat 
the  works  of  death,  desolation  and  tyranny,  already  begun  with  circumstances  of 
Cruelty  &  perfidy  scarcely  paralleled  in  the  most  barbarous  ages,  and  totally  un 
worthy  the  Head  of  a  civilized  nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow  Citizens  taken  Captive  on  the  high  Seas  to  bear 
Arms  against  their  Country,  to  become  the  executioners  of  their  friends  and  Breth 
ren,  or  to  fall  themselves  by  their  Hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrections  amongst  us,  and  has  endeavoured  to 
bring  on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers,  the  merciless  Indian  Savages,  whose 
known  rule  of  warfare,  is  an  undistinguished  destruction  of  all  ages,  sexes  and 
conditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  Oppressions  We  have  Petitioned  for  Redress  in  the  most 
humble  terms :  Our  repeated  Petitions  have  been  answered  only  by  repeated  in 
jury.  A  Prince,  whose  character  is  thus  marked  by  every  act  which  may  define 
a  Tyrant,  is  unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  free  People. 

Nor  have  We  been  wanting  in  attention  to  our  British  brethren.  We  have 
warned  them  from  time  to  time  of  attempts  by  their  legislature  to  extend  an  unwar 
rantable  jurisdiction  over  us.  We  have  reminded  them  of  the  circumstances  of 
our  emigration  and  settlement  here.  We  have  appealed  to  their  native  justice 
and  magnanimity,  and  we  have  conjured  them  by  the  ties  of  our  common  kindred 
to  disavow  these  usurpations,  which,  would  inevitably  interrupt  our  connections 
and  correspondence.  They  too  have  been  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice  and  of  con 
sanguinity.  We  must,  therefore,  acquiesce  in  the  necessity,  which  denounces  our 
Separation,  and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  mankind,  Enemies  in  War,  in 
Peace  Friends. 

WTe,  therefore,  the  Representatives  of  the  united  States  of  America,  in  General 
Congress,  Assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of  the  world  for  the  rectitude 
of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the  Name,  and  by  Authority  of  the  good  People  of  these 
Colonies,  solemnly  publish  and  declare,  That  these  United  Colonies  are,  and  of 
Right  ought  to  be  Free  and  Independent  States;  that  they  are  Absolved  from  all 
Allegiance  to  the  British  Crown,  and  that  all  political  connection  between  them 
and  the  State  of  Great  Britain,  is  and  ought  to  be  totally  dissolved ;  and  that  as 
Free  and  Independent  States,  they  have  full  Power  to  levy  War,  conclude  Peace, 
contract  Alliances,  establish  Commerce,  and  to  do  all  other  Acts  and  Things  which 
Independent  States  may  of  right  do.  And  for  the  support  of  this  Declaration,  with 
a  firm  reliance  on  the  Protection  of  Divine  Providence,  we  mutually  pledge  to  each 
other  our  Lives,  our  Fortunes  and  our  sacred  Honor. 

JOHN   HANCOCK. 


650  APPENDIX 

[Signers  arranged  by  States] 

New  Hampshire  —  JOSIAH  BARTLETT,  WM.  WHIPPLE,  MATTHEW  THORNTON. 
Massachusetts  Bay  —  SAML.  ADAMS,  JOHN  ADAMS,  ROBT.  TREAT  PAINE,  ELBRIDGE 
GERRY. 

Rhode  Island — STEP.  HOPKINS,  WILLIAM  ELLERY. 
Connecticut  —  ROGER  SHERMAN,  SAM'EL  HUNTINGTON,  WM.  WILLIAMS,  OLIVER 

WOLCOTT. 

New  York  —  WM.  FLOYD,  PHIL.  LIVINGSTON,  FRANS.  LEWIS,  LEWIS  MORRIS. 

New  Jersey  —  RICHD.  STOCKTON,  JNO.  WITHERSPOON,  FRAS.  HOPKINSON, 
JOHN  HART,  ABRA.  CLARK. 

Pennsylvania  —  ROBT.  MORRIS,  BENJAMIN  RUSH,  BENJA.  FRANKLIN,  JOHN 
MORTON,  GKO.  CLYMER,  JAS.  SMITH,  GEO.  TAYLOR,  JAMES  WILSON,  GEO.  Ross. 

Delaware  —  CAESAR  RODNEY,  GEO.  READ,  THO.  M'KEAN. 

Maryland — SAMUEL  CHASE,  WM.  PACA,  THOS.  STONE,  CHARLES  CARROLL  of 
Carrollton. 

Virginia  —  GEORGE  WYTHE,  RICHARD  HENRY  LEE,  TH.  JEFFERSON,  BENJA. 
HARRISON,  THOS.  NELSON,  jr.,  FRANCIS  LIGHTFOOT  LEE,  CARTER  BRAXTON. 

North  Carolina  —  WM.  HOOPER,  JOSEPH  HEWES,  JOHN  PENN. 

South  Carolina  —  EDWARD  RUTLEDGE,  THOS.  HEYWARD,  Junr.,  THOMAS  LYNCH, 
Junr.,  ARTHUR  MIDDLETON. 

Georgia  —  BUTTON  GWINNETT,  LYMAN  HALL,  GEO.  WALTON. 


ANNOTATED  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES 

[Preamble] 

WE  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect  union,  estab 
lish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  common  defense,  promote 
the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  pos 
terity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  Constitution  for  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE    I 

[Legislative  Department] 

SECTION  i.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Congress 
of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  Mouse  of  Representa 
tives. 

SECTION  2.  i.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of  members 
chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States,  and  the  electors  in 
each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous 
branch  of  the  State  legislature  [pp.  172,  437]. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  representative  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age 
of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who 
shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  x  shall  be  apportioned  [p.   171]  among  the 
several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to  their  respec 
tive  numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free 
persons,  including  those  bound  to  service  for  a  term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians 
not  taxed,  three  fifths  of  all  other  persons.2     The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made 
within  three  years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States, 
and  within  every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such  manner  as  they  shall  by 
law  direct.     The  number  of  representatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty 
thousand,  but  each  State  shall  have  at  least  one  representative;    and  until  such 
enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose 
three,  Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations  one,  Connect 
icut  five,  New  York  six,  New  Jersey  four,  Pennsylvania  eight,  Delaware  one,  Mary 
land  six,  Virginia  ten,  North  Carolina  five,  South  Carolina  five,  and  Georgia  three. 

1  See  the  i6th  Amendment,  p.  664. 

2  Partly  superseded  by  the  i4th  Amendment.     (See  below,  p.  66].) 

65  x 


652  APPENDIX 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State,  the  executive 
authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  speaker  and  other  officers; 
and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

SECTION  3.  i.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two 
senators  from  each  State  [p.  171],  chosen  by  the  legislature  thereof,  for  six  years 
[p.  172] ;  and  each  senator  shall  have  one  vote.1 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of  the  first  elec 
tion,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three  classes.     The  seats  of 
the  senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year, 
of  the  second  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class  at 
the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one  third  may  be  chosen  every  second 
year;    and  if  vacancies  happen  by  resignation,  or  otherwise,  during  the  recess  of 
the  legislature  of  any  State,  the  executive  thereof  may  make  temporary  appoint 
ments  until  the  next  meeting  of  the  legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies.1 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty 
years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when 
elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

4.  The  Vice  President  of  the  United   States  shall  be  President  of  the  Senate, 
but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

"5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  president  pro  tempore, 
in  the  absence  of  the  Vice  President,  or  when  he  shall  exercise  the  office  of  Presi 
dent  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The   Senate   shall   have   the   sole   power  to   try_  all   impeachments.      When 
sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation.     When  the  President 
of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  chief. justice  shall  preside:    and  no  person  shall 
be  convicted  without  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds  of  the  members  present. 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than  to  removal 
from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office  of  honor,  trust  or  profit 
under  the  United  States :    but  the  party  convicted  shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and 
subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment  and  punishment,  according  to  law. 

SECTION  4.  I.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for  senators 
and  representatives,  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  legislature  thereof; 
but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time  by  law  make  or  alter  such  regulations,  except  as 
to  the  places  of  choosing  senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and  such  meet 
ing  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall  by  law  appoint 
a  different  day. 

SECTION  5.  i.  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns  and 
qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  constitute  a  quorum 
to  do  business;  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be 
authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members,  in  such  manner,  and 
under  such  penalties  as  each  House  may  provide. 

1  See  the  I7th  Amendment,  below,  p.  664. 


APPENDIX  653 

2.  Each  House  may  determine'  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punish  its  mem 
bers  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds,  expel  a 
member. 

3.  Each  House  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time  to  time 
publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their  judgment  require  secrecy; 
and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of  either  House  on  any  question  shall,  at 
the  desire  of  one  fifth  of  those  present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

4.  Neither  House,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without  the  consent 
of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other  place  than  that 
in  which  the  two  Houses  shall  be  sitting. 

SECTION  6.  i.  The  senators  and  representatives  shall  receive  a  compensa 
tion  for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  of  the  Treasury  of 
the  United  States.  They  shall  in  all  cases,  except  treason,  felony  and  breach  of 
the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  session  of  their 
respective  Houses,  and  in  going  to  and  returning  from  the  same;  and  for  any 
speech  or  debate  in  either  House,  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

2.  No  senator  or  representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which  he  was  elected, 
be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  which 
shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall  have  been  increased  dur 
ing  such  time;  and  no  person  holding  any  office  under  the  United  States  shall  be 
a  member  of  either  Flouse  during  his  continuance  in  office. 

SECTION  7.  I.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives  ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments  as  on  other 
bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives  and  the 
Senate,  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United 
States;   if  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not  he  shall  return  it,  with  his  objec 
tions  to  that  House  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objec 
tions  at  large  on  their  journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.     If  after  such  recon 
sideration  two  thirds  of  that  House  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent, 
together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other  House,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  re 
considered,  and  if  approved  by  two  thirds  of  that  House,  it  shall  become  a  law. 
But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes  of  both  Houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays, 
and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the 
journal  of  each  House  respectively.     If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  Presi 
dent  within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him, 
the  same  shall  be  a  law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress 
by  their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a  question  of  adjournment) 
shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United   States ;    and   before  the  same 
shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be 
repassed  by  two  thirds  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  according  to 
the  rules  and  limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 


654  APPENDIX 

SECTION  8.  I.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties, 
imposts  and  excises  [pp.  165,  173,  185],  to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the  common 
defense  and  general  welfare  of  the  United  States ;  but  all  duties,  imposts  and 
excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States; 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States; 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations  [pp.   165,  171],  and  among  the 
several  States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes ; 

4.  To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws  on  the  sub 
ject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States; 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin,  and  fix  the 
standard  of  weights  and  measures; 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and  current 
coin  of  the  United  States  ; 

7.  To  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads; 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by  securing  for  limited 
times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to  their  respective  writings  and 
discoveries ; 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court; 

10.  To  define  and  punish    piracies  and   felonies  committed  on  the  high  seas, 
and  offenses  against  the  law  of  nations ; 

11.  To  declare  war1,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make  rules  con 
cerning  captures  on  land  and  water; 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies  [pp.  165,  173],  but  no  appropriation  of  money 
to  rhat  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years; 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy; 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and  naval 
forces ; 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the  Union, 
suppress  insurrections  and  repel  invasions ; 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,   arming,   and  disciplining  the  militia,  and  for 
governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively  the  appointment  of  the  officers,  and 
the  authority  of  training  the  militia  according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by 
Congress ; 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever,  over  such  district 
(not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  particular  States,  and  the 
acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
and  to  exercise  like  authority  over  all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the 
legislature  of  the  State  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  maga 
zines,  arsenals,  dockyards,  and  other  needful  buildings;   and 

1 8.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying  into 
execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this  Constitu 
tion  in  the  government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer  thereof. 

SECTION  9.     i.   The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any  of  the 


APPENDIX  655 


States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the 
Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight  [p.  172],  but  a 
tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importation,  not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each 
person. 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended,  unless 
when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

4.  No  capitation,  or  other  direct,  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  proportion  to  the 
census  or  enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to  be  taken  [p.  lyi].1 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  State. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or  revenue  to 
the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another:    nor  shall  vessels  bound  to,  or  from, 
one  State  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another  [p.  165]. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury,  but  in  consequence  of  appro 
priations  made  by  law;    and  a  regular  statement  and  account  of  the  receipts  and 
expenditures  of  all  public  money  stoall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States :    and  no  person 
holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them,  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the 
Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title,  of  any  kind  whatever, 
from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  State. 

SECTION  10.  I.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confedera 
tion;  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal;  coin  money;  emit  bills  of  credit; 
make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts  [p.  168] ; 
pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of 
contracts,  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  imposts  or 
duties  on  imports  or  exports  [p.  165],  except  what  may  be  absolutely  necessary  for 
executing  its  inspection  laws:  and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and  imposts  laid 
by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports,  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of  the 
United  States;  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of 
the  Congress. 

•  3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of  tonnage, 
keep  troops,  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any  agreement  or  compact 
with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless  actually  in 
vaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

ARTICLE   II 

[Executive  Department} 

SECTION  i.  I.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the 
United  States  of  America  [pp.  165,  172].  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term 
of  four  years,  and,  together  with  the  Vice  President,  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be 
elected,  as  follows : 

1  See  the  i6th  Amendment,  below,  p.  664. 


656  APPENDIX 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature  thereof  may 
direct  [p.  172],  a  number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  senators  and 
representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress  :   but  no  senator 
or  representative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United 
States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

1  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  two 
persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with 
themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all  the  persons  voted  for,  and  of  the 
number  of  votes  for  each ;  which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit 
sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  presi 
dent  of  the  Senate.  The  president  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Sen 
ate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall 
then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be  the 
President  [p.  192],  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors 
appointed ;  and  if  there  be  more  than  one  who  have  such  majority,  and  have  an 
equal  number  of  votes,  then  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  immediately 
choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for  President  [p.  192] ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority 
then  from  the  five  highest  on  the  list  the  said  House  shall  in  like  manner  choose 
the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States, 
the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose 
shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority 
of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of 
the  President,  the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  electors  shall 
be  the  Vice  President  [p:  192].  But  if  there  should  remain  two  or  more  who  have 
equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose  from  them  by|ballot  the  Vice  President.2 

3.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors,  and  the  day 
on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes;   which  day  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the 
United  States. 

4.  No  person  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
at  the  time  of  the  adoption  ,of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligible  to  the  office  of 
President;    neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have 
attained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  a  resident  within- 
the  United  States. 

5.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his  death,  resigna 
tion,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  said  office,  the  same 
shall  devolve  on  the  Vice  President,  and  the  Congress  may  by  law  provide  for 
the  case  of  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and 
Vice  President,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such  officer 
shall  act  accordingly,  until  the  disability  be  removed,  or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 

6.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a  compensation, 
which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during  the  period  for  which  he  shall 

1  The  following  paragraph  was  in  force  only  from  1788  to  1803. 

2  Superseded  by  the  I2th  Amendment.     (See  p.  662.) 


APPENDIX  657 

have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive  within  that  period  any  other  emolu 
ment  from  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them. 

7.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take  the  following  oath 
or  affirmation:—  "  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute 
the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will  to  the  best  of  my  ability, 
preserve,  protect  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 

SECTION  2.  i.  The  President  shall  be  commander  in  chief  of  the  army  and 
navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States,  when  called  into 
the  actual  service  of  the  United  States;  he  may  require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of 
the  principal  officer  in  each  of  the  executive  departments,  upon  any  subject  relat 
ing  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices,  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant 
reprieves  and  pardons  for  offenses  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases 
of  impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate, 
to  make  treaties  [p.  203],  provided  two  thirds  of  the  senators  present  concur  [p. 
365] ;    and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Sen 
ate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls,  judges  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  United  States,  whose  appointments 
are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by  law :    but 
the  Congress  may  by  law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior  officers,  as  they 
think  proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  depart 
ments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that  may  happen  dur 
ing  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions  which  shall  expire  at  the  end 
of  their  next  session. 

SECTION  3.  i.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  information  of 
the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such  measures  as 
he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he  may,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  con 
vene  both  Houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  between  them 
with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as 
he  shall  think  proper;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers; 
he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall  commission  all 
the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

SECTION  4.  The  President,  Vice  President,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United 
States,  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for,  and  conviction  of,  treason, 
bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE    III 

[Judicial  Department] 

SECTION  i.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one 
Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may  from  time  to  time 
ordain  and  establish  [p.  173].  The  judges,  both  of  the  Supreme  and  inferior  courts, 
shall  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for 


658  APPENDIX 

their  services,  a  compensation,  which  shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  contin 
uance  in  office. 

SECTION  2.  i.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law  and  equity, 
arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  treaties  made, 
or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority  ;  —  to  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors, 
other  public  ministers  and  consuls ;  —  to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  juris 
diction  ; —  to  controversies  to  which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  party;  —  to 
controversies  between  two  or  more  States;  —  between  a  State  and  citizens  of 
another  State; 1  —  between  citizens  of  different  States,  —  between  citizens  of  the 
same  State  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different  States,  and  between  a  State,  or 
the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  States,  citizens  or  subjects. 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls,  and 
those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  party,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  original  juris 
diction.     In  all  the  other  cases  before  mentioned,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have 
appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and  to  fact,  with  such  exceptions,  and  under 
such  regulations  as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in- cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be  by  jury; 
and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes  shall  have  been 
committed  ;    but  when  not  committed  within  any  State,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such 
place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

SECTION  3.  i.  Treason  against  the  United  States,  shall  consist  only  in  levy 
ing  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  com 
fort.  No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of  two 
witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of  treason,  but 
no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood,  or  forfeiture  except  during 
the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 

ARTICLE   IV 

[Return  of  Escaped  Slaves ;  New  States:    Territories] 

SECTION  i.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public 
arts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State.  And  the  Congress 
may  by  general  laws  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records  and  pro 
ceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

SECTION  2.  i.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges 
and  immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other  crime,  who  shall 
flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall  on  demand  of  the  executive 
authority  of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up  to  be  removed  to  the 
State  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  Slate,  under  the  laws  thereof,  escap 
ing  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  regulation  therein,  be  dis- 

1  Sec  the  nth  Amendment,  p.  661. 


APPENDIX  659 

charged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party 
to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due  [pp.  367,  377]. 

SECTION  3.  I.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into  this  Union 
[p.  367] ;  but  no  new  States  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  any  other  State ;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  States, 
or  parts  of  States,  without  the  consent  of  the  legislatures  of  the  States  concerned 
as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all  needful  rules  and 
regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other  property  belonging  to  the  United 
States  [pp.  210,  211,  370,  375,  379,  382];  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall 
be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  particular 
State. 

/  SECTION  4.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this  Union 
a  republican  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against  invasion ; 
and  on  application  of  the  legislature,  or  of  the  executive  (when  the  legislature  can 
not  be  convened)  against  domestic  violence  [n.  168]. 

ARTICLE  V 

[Provision  for  Amendments] 

The  Congress,  whenever  two  thirds  of  both  Houses  shall  deem  it  necessary, 
shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the  application  of  the  legis 
latures  of  two  thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a  convention  for  proposing 
amendments,  which,  in  either  case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as 
part  of  this  Constitution  when  ratified  by  the  legislatures  of  three  fourths  of  the 
several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three  fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other 
mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress ;  Provided  that  no  amend 
ment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight 
shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the 
first  article;  and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal 
suffrage  in  the  Senate. 

ARTICLE   VI 

[Public  Debts;   Supremacy  of  the  Constitution] 

1.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into,  before  the  adoption  of 
this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United  States  under  this  Constitu 
tion,  as  under  the  Confederation  [p.  iSi]. 

2.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall  be  made 
in  pursuance  thereof;    and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  the 
authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land;    and  the 
Judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything  in  the  Constitution  or  laws 
of  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

3.  The  senators   and   representatives   before  mentioned,   and   the  members  of 
the  several  State  legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers,  both  of  the 


660  APPENDIX 

United  States  and  of  the  several  .States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirmation  to 
support  this  Constitution;  but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  quali 
fication  to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE   VII 

[Ratification] 

The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be  sufficient  for  the  estab 
lishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  ratifying  the  same. 

Done  in  Convention  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States  present  the  seven 
teenth  day  of  September  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  seven  hundred 
and  eighty-seven,  and  of  the  independence  of  the  United  States  of  America  the 
twelfth.  In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names, 

Go :  WASHINGTON  — 

Presidt.  and  Deputy  from  Virginia 


Articles  in  addition  to,  and  amendment  of,  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  proposed  by  Congress,  and  ratified  by  the  legislatures  of  the  several 
States  pursuant  to  the  fifth  article  of  the  original  Constitution. 

[The  Right  of  Persons  (p.  181)] 
ARTICLE   I1 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion,  or  pro 
hibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech,  or  of  the 
press  [p.  191];  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to  petition 
the  government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

ARTICLE   II 

A  well  regulated  militia,  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free  State,  the  right 
of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms,  shall  not  be  infringed. 

ARTICLE    III 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace  be  quartered  in  any  house,  without  the  con 
sent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

ARTICLE    IV 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers,  and  effects, 
against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  s-hall  not  be  violated,  and  no  warrants 
shall  issue,  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  partic 
ularly  describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

xThe  first  ten  Amendments  adopted  in  1791. 


APPENDIX  661 

ARTICLE  V 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital,  or  otherwise  infamous  crime, 
unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  except  in  cases  arising 
in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual  service  in  time  of  war 
or  public  danger;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the  same  offense  to  be  twice 
put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any  criminal  case  to  be 
a  witness  against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty*  or  property,  without  due 
process  of  law;  nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public  use  without  just 
compensation. 

ARTICLE   VI 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a  speedy  and 
public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district  wherein  the  crime  shall 
have  been  committed,  which  district  shall  have  been  previously  ascertained  by 
law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation;  to  be  confronted 
with  the  witnesses  against  him;  to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining  wit 
nesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defense. 

ARTICLE   VII 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed  twenty 
dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact  tried  by  a  jury 
shall  be  otherwise  reexammed  in  any  court  of  the  United  States,  than  according  to 
the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

ARTICLE  VIII 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  and 
unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

ARTICLE   IX 

The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain  rights  shall  not  be  construed  to 
deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE   X 

[The  Rights  of  States] 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitution,  nor  pro 
hibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  respectively,  or  to  the  people. 

ARTICLE  XI1 

[Suits  against  States] 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to  extend  to  any 
suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the  United  States 
[p.  182]  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign  State. 

1  Adopted  in  1798. 


662  APPENDIX 

ARTICLE  Xin 

[Change  in  Electoral  System] 

The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  Presi 
dent  and  Vice  President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the 
same  State  with  themselves ;  they  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted 
for  as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots,  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice  President, 
and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President  and  of  all 
persons  voted  for  as  Vice  President,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which 
lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  government 
of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate;  —  The  President  of 
the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open 
all  the  certificates  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted;  —  The  person  having  the 
greatest  number  of  votes  for  President,  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be 
a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ;  and  if  no  person  have  such 
majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers  not  exceeding  three 
on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose 
immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes 
shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a 
quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of 
the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if 
the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  President  whenever  the  right  of 
choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following, 
then  the  Vice  President  shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other 
constitutional  disability  of  the  President.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number 
of  votes  as  Vice  President  shall  be  the  Vice  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed,  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then 
from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the  Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice  Presi 
dent;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two  thirds  of  the  whole  number 
of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 
But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligible 
to  that  of  Vice  President  of  the  United  States. 


ARTICLE  XIII2 

[Slavery  Prohibited] 

SECTION  i.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  punishment 
for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist  within  the 
United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction  [pp.  404-406]. 

2.    Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

1  Adopted  in  1804.  2  Adopted  in  1865. 


APPENDIX  663 

ARTICLE  XIV  [pp.  432-433]  i 

[Who  Are  Citizens] 

1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject  to  the 
jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  State  wherein 
they  reside.     No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall  abridge  the 
privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States;    nor  shall  any  State 
deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law;    nor 
deny  to  any  person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

[Apportionment  of  Representatives  and  the  Suffrage] 

2.  Representatives  shall   be  apportioned   among  the  several   States   according 
to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of  persons  in  each  State, 
excluding  Indians  not  taxed.     But  when  the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the 
choice  of  electors  for  President  and  Vice  President  of  the  United  States,  representa 
tives  in  Congress,  the  executive  and  judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of 
the  legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  State, 
being  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way 
abridged,  except  for  participation  in  rebellion,  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  repre 
sentation  therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such  male 
citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age 
in  such  State. 

[Exclusion  of  Certain  Persons  from  Office] 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  or  representative  in  Congress,  or  elector  of 
President  and  Vice  President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or  military,  under  the  United 
States,  or  under  any  State,  who,  having  previously  taken  an  oath,  as  a  member 
of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  legis 
lature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Consti 
tution  of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against 
the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof.     But  Congress  may  by 
a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  each  House,  remove  such  disability. 

[Union  and  Confederate  Debts] 

4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United   States,  authorized  by  law, 
including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and  bounties  for  services  in  sup 
pressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned.     But  neither  the  United 
States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of 
insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or 
emancipation  of  any  slave;   but  all  such  debts,  obligations  and  claims  shall  be  held 
illegal  and  void. 

5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate  legislation,  the 
provisions  of  this  article. 

1  Adopted  in  1868. 


664  APPENDIX 

ARTICLE  XV  [p.  435]* 
[Right  to  rote] 

SECTION  i .  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied, 
or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  pre 
vious  condition  of  servitude. 

SECTION  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

ARTICLE  XVI2 
[Income  Tax] 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on  incomes,  from  what 
ever  source  derived,  without  apportionment  among  the  several  States,  and  without 
regard  to  any  census  or  enumeration. 

ARTICLE  XVII » 
[Popular  Election  of  Senators] 

The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  senators  from  each 
State,  elected  by  the  people  thereof,  for  six  years ;  and  each  senator  shall  have 
one  vote.  The  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for 
electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  State  legislature. 

When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  of  any  State  in  the  Senate,  the 
executive  authority  of  such  State  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies  : 
Provided,  That  the  legislature  of  any  State  may  empower  the  executive  thereof 
to  make  temporary  appointments  until  the  people  fill  the  vacancies  by  election  as 
the  legislature  may  direct. 

This  amendment  shall  not  be  so  construed  as  to  affect  the  election  or  term  of 
any  senator  chosen  before  it  becomes  valid  as  part  of  the  Constitution. 

ARTICLE   XVIII4 

SECTION  I.  After  one  year  from  the  ratification  of  this  article  the  manufacture, 
sale,  or  transportation  of  intoxicating  liquors  within,  the  importation  thereof  into, 

1  Adopted  in  1870. 

2  Passed  July,  1909;    proclaimed  February  25,  1913. 

3  Passed  May,  1912,  in  lieu  of  paragraph  one,  Section  3,  Article  I,  of  the  Con 
stitution  and  so  much  of  paragraph  two  of  the  same  Section  as  relates  to  the  filling 
of  vacancies  ;    proclaimed  May  31,  1913. 

4  Passed  both  houses  of  Congress,  December,  1917;  ratified  by  the  required  num 
ber  of  states  on  January  16,  1919,  and  proclaimed  to  take  effect  January  16,  1920. 


APPENDIX  665 

or  the  exportation  thereof  from  the  United  States  and  all  territory  subject  to  the 
jurisdiction  thereof,  for  beverage  purposes,  is  hereby  prohibited. 

SECTION  2.  The  Congress  and  the  several  States  shall  have  concurrent  power 
to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

SECTION  3.  This  article  shall  be  inoperative  unless  it  shall  have  been  ratified 
as  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution  by  the  Legislatures  of  the  several  States,  as 
provided  by  the  Constitution,  within  seven  years  from  the  date  of  the  submission 
hereof  to  the  States  by  the  Congress. 


REFERENCE   BOOKS 

I.   APPROVED  LIST  AND  RECENT  PUBLICATIONS  SUGGESTED  FOR 
GENERAL  READING  AND  STUDY 

Channing.  —  "History  of  the  United  States,"  8  vols. 

McMaster.  —  "History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,"  7  vols. 

1  Rhodes.  —   "History  of  the  United  States,"  7  vols. 

Schouler.  —  "  History  of  the  United  States  under  the  Constitution,"  6  vols, 

Coman.  —   "Industrial  History  of  the  United  States." 

Elson.  —  "History  of  the  United  States." 

1  Mead  (Editor).  —   "Old  South  Leaflets."     Reprints  of  important  original 

documents  with  historical  and  biographical  notes. 
1  Green.  —  "A  Short  History  of  England." 
Church.  —  "Stories  from  English  History." 
1  "The  Crusaders." 

1  Guizot.  —    "History  of  Civilization  in  France,"  3  vols. 

2  Chamberlain.  —   "Geographic  Readers." 

"True  Stories  of  Great  Americans,"  a  series  of  biographies  of  great  per 
sonages  in  our  history. 

1  "Stories  from  American  History,"  several  volumes  on  the  various  aspects 
of  our  history. 

State  and  local  histories. 

II.    LISTED  IN  THE  TEXT  UNDER   PROBLEMS   FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

"  Baldwin.        "Discovery  of  the  Old  Northwest." 

1  Bass.  -    "Stories  of  Pioneer  Life." 

2  Rolton.        "Famous  Men  of  Science." 

Brigham.        "Geographic  Influences  in  American  History." 

1  Brooks.  —    "Stories  of  the  Old  Bay  State." 

2  Bryan.  —    "Sam  Houston." 

1  Coffin.  —   "Boys  of  Seventy-Six." 
Coombs.  —    "Ulysses  S.  Grant." 
Dudley.—    "Benjamin  Franklin." 
Du  Bois.  —  "The  Soul  of  a  Black  Man." 

1  I /is  red  in  rhe  "  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Eight." 

2  Listed  in  the  "Sixteenth  Yearbook  of  rhe  National  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Education," 

00; 


668  APPENDIX 

1  Eggleston.  —   "Our  First  Century." 

1  Elson.  —   "Side-Lights  on  American  History." 
Garland.  -  '  A  Son  of  the  Middle  Border." 
Gilman.  —  "Robert  E.  Lee." 

2  Guerber.  —   "Stories  of  Modern  France." 
Gulliver.—   "Daniel  Boone." 

Hale  and  Chester.  —  "The  Panama  Canal." 
1  Hart.  —  "Colonial  Children." 

"Camps  and  Firesides  of  the  Revolution." 

"How  Our  Grandfathers  Lived." 

"Romance  of  the  Civil  War." 

"Source  Book  in  American  History." 
Hasbrouck.  — "LaSalle." 
1  Hitchcock.  —  "The  Louisiana  Purchase." 
Holland.  — "William  Penn." 
Johnson.  —   "Captain  John  Smith." 

1  Lighten.  —  "Lewis  and  Clark." 

Lodge  and  Roosevelt.  —   "Hero  Tales  from  American  History." 

McMurry.  —   "Pioneers  on  Land  and  Sea." 

"Pioneers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley." 

"Pioneers  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  West.; 

2  Mowry.  —   "American  Inventions  and  Inventors." 
2  Nicolay.  —  "Abraham  Lincoln." 

Nida.  —   "Dawn  of  American  History  in  Europe." 

1  Parkman.  —  "The  Struggle  for  a  Continent." 

2  Pratt.  —   "Cortes  and  Montezuma." 
Rideing.  —  "George  Washington." 
Rolt-Wheeler.  —  "Thomas  A.  Edison." 

1  Semple.  —  "American  History  and  Geographical  Condition." 

1  Smith-Dutton.  —  "The  Colonies." 

1  Southworth.  —   "Builders  of  our  Country." 

1  Sparks.  —  "Men  who  Made  the  Nation." 
Sprague.  —  "Davy  Crockett." 

Stapley.  —   "Christopher  Columbus." 
Sutcliffe.  —  "Robert  Fulton." 

2  Tappan.  —   "American  Hero  Tales." 

"England's  Story." 
1  Tiffany.  —  "  Pilgrims  and  Puritans." 
Twain.  —  "Roughing  It." 
1  Warren.  —  "Stories  from  English  History." 
Washington.  —   "Up  from  Slavery." 

Wheeler.  —  "The  Boy  with  the  United  States  Foresters." 
Wilson.  —  "Addresses  and  Papers." 


APPENDIX  669 

III.    SUGGESTED  FOR  THE  TEACHER'S  LIBRARY 

Andrews,  Gambrill,  and  Tall.  —  "A  Bibliography  of  History  for  Schools." 

Bourne.  —   "Teaching  History  and  Civics." 

Hinsdale.  —  "How  to  Study  and  Teach  History." 

Johnson.  —   "Teaching  History  in  Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools." 

McMurry.  —  "Special  Method  in  History." 

Robinson  and  Beard.  —   "Readings  in  Modern  European  History." 

Simpson.  —   "Supervised  Study  in  History." 

Wayland.  —  "How  to  Teach  American  History." 


INDEX 


ACADEMIES,  rise  of,  348 

Acadia,  founded,  32;    captured  by  English, 

85 

Adams,  Abigail,  Mrs.,  167 

Adams,  John,  156,  167,  189,  IQO,  195 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  252-254,  272,  373 

Adams,  Samuel,  123 

African  Colonization  Society,  366 

Agriculture,  6,  98-103,  285,  469 

Agricultural  colleges,  560;  experiment  sta 
tions,  562 

Aguinaldo,  551 

Alabama,  created,  212;  admitted  to  the 
Union,  222;  secedes,  390;  iron  produc 
tion,  448 ;  iron  deposits,  474 ;  coal  in 
dustry,  475 

Alabama,  Confederate  cruiser,  411 

Alabama  affair,  539-540 

Alamo  (a/la-mo),  the,  271 

Alaska,  Ri  Asians  in,  93;  purchased  by  the 
United  States,  94,  466;  history  of,  466 

Alien  and  foreign  born  in  Great  War,  631 

Alien  and  sedition  laws,  190,  191 

Allen,  Ethan,  141 

Amendments,  to  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  the  first  eleven,  181-182, 
660-661;  twelfth  amendment,  192,  662; 
thirteenth  amendment,  392-393,  662 ; 
fourteenth  amendment,  432,  663  ;  fifteenth 
amendment,  434,  654;  sixteenth  amend 
ment,  526,  654;  proposed  amendment, 
536;  seventeenth  amendment,  582,  654 

America,  origin  of  name,  27 

American  Associated  Press,  567 

American  Civic  Federation,  516 

American  Expeditionary  Forces,  633 

Andre  (an'dra),  Major,  150 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  83 

Annapolis  convention,  170 

Anthony,  Susan  B.,  336,  585 

Antietam,  battle  of,  400 

Anti-Federalist  party,  the,  186.  See  Repub 
lican  party 

Anti-trust  legislation,  533,  603 

Appomattox,  Lee's  surrender  at,  422 


Arbitration,  with  England,  539-541 

Argonne  section,  034 

Argus,  the,  238 

Arizona,  Spanish  in  the  territory,  91 ;  ceded 

to  the  United  States,  276;   exploration  by 

Pike,  280;    admission  to  Union,  465 
Arkansas,  cotton  growing  in,  267;  admission 

to  Union,  268;  secedes,  395  ;  struggle  for, 

401 

Armada  (iir-ma'da),  Spanish,  defeat  of,  35 
Army,  the  Revolutionary,  159;  War  of  1812, 

234;      Civil    War,    397,    403,    404,    420; 

Spanish-American    War,    547,    549,    551; 

War  writh  Mexico,  604 ;    Great  War,  626- 

632 

Arnold,  Benedict,  142,  150,  151 
Arthur,  Chester  A.,  523,  525 
Articles  of  Confederation,  164-166,  167,  168, 

172 

Artisans,  rise  of,  14 
Ashburton,  Lord,  263 
Assumption  of  state  debts,  182-184 
Astoria,  277 

Atlanta,  battle  of,  419-420 
Atlantic  cable,  308 
Austin,  Moses,  270 
Australian  ballot,  577 
Austria,  sixteenth  century,  5 ;    demands  on 

Serbia  bring  war,  609 ;   intrigue  in  United 

States,  619 
Autocracy,  German,  622 

BALBOA,  discovers  Pacific,  27 

Ballot  reform,  577 

Baltimore,  106,  397,  602  , 

Baltimore,  Lord,  56,  57 

Bank,  First  United  States,  184;  Second 
United  States,  240 ;  attacked  by  Jackson, 
260-261 ;  opposed  by  Tyler,  263  ;  Federal 
Reserve,  530-531 

Baptists,  43" 

Barnard,  Henry,  344 

Barry,  Captain  John,  155 

Beauregard  (bo'rc  gard),  General  P.  G.  T., 


399 


671 


INDEX 


Behring  (be'ring),  or  Bering,  name  given  to 
straits,  93,  242 

Belgium,  invaded,  6oq,  632 

Bell,  Alexander  Graham,  483 

Bell  Telephone  Company,  487 

Bennington,  battle  of,  148,  149 

Bernstorff,  Count  Johann  von,  617 

Bible,  reading  of,  45 

Bienville  (byan-vel'),  80 

"Bimetallism,"  530 

Birmingham,  448 

Black  Hills,  461 

Blaine,  James  G.,  523 

Blockade,  England  by  France,  229-230; 
Civil  War,  409-413  ;  Great  War,  611 

"Blockade  runners,"  410-411 

Bolsheviki  (bol-she-ve'ki),  634 

Bond  servants,  53,  54,  72-75 

Bonhomme  Richard,  155 

Boone,  Daniel,  100,  216 

Boston,  settlement  of,  53 ;  population  of,  in 
1763, 106;  Massacre,  125-126;  Tea  Party, 
126-127;  Port  Bill,  128;  British  quartered 
in,  136;  siege  of,  140;  evacuated  by 
British,  141 ;  first  public  High  School, 
348 ;  early  newspaper  in,  353 

Boston  and  Albany  Railroad,  306 

Boxer  Rebellion,  551 

Braddock's  defeat,  85-86 

Bragg,  General  Braxton,  417 

Brandy  wine,  battle  of,  146 

Breed's  Hill,  140 

British,  see  England 

Brown,  John,  raid,  383 

Bruges  (bro'jez),  16 

Bryan,  William  J.,  524,  525,  530,  552 

Bryant,  William  Cullen,  359 

Buchanan  (bu-kan'an),  James,  380,  392 

Buena  Vista  (bwa'na  ves  ta),  battle  of,  274 

Buenos  Ayres  (bwa'nos  I  rez),  240 

Buffalo,  301,  322,  474 

Bull  Run,  first  battle,  398 ;  second  battle,  400 

Bunker  Hill,  140,  141 

Bunyan,  John,  43 

Burgesses,  House  of,  in  Virginia,  50 ;  protest 
against  stamp  tax,  123 

Burgoyne  (ber-goin'),  General,  148-149 

Burke,  Edmund,  131,  132 

Burnside,  General  A.  E.,  401 

Burr,  Aaron,  192 

Business  men,  486-488 

CABOT,  John,  explorations  of,  33 

Cahokia,  156 

Calhoun,  John  C.,  235,  254,  256,  273,  274,  374 


California,  early  Spanish  operations,  91-93; 
ceded  to  United  States,  276;  early  Amer 
ican  trade  with,  279;  gold  discovered  in, 
281;  miners  in,  284;  admission  to  the 
Union,  282,  375,  376,  455  ;  gold  mining  in, 
475  ;  oil  in,  475  ;  Chinese  in,  499 

Calvin,  John,  43 

Cambridge,  141 

Camden,  battle  of,  153 

Canada,  ceded  to  England,  88;  opened  to 
Protestant  settlers,  90;  retained  by 
British,  156 ;  in  the  War  of  1812,  236,  237  ; 
Webster-Ashburton  treaty,  263 ;  arbitra 
tion  of  disputes,  541 ;  reciprocity  with, 
defeated,  600 

Canals,  299-302 

Cantigny  (can-ttn'yi),  634 

Capital,  for  investment  in  colonies,  46 ;  and 
labor,  508-517  ;  problem  of,  519 

Caribbean,  American  interests  in,  605 

Carolinas,  founded,  58 ;  separated  into  North 
and  South,  58;  royal  provinces,  59; 
Presbyterians  in,  70,  71 ;  early  settlements 
in,  100 ;  emigration  from,  216 

Carpet-baggers,  435 

Carpenters'  Hall,  128 

Carranza,  604,  605 

Carteret,  Sir  George,  62 

Cartier  (kar-tya'),  explorations  of,  32 

Catechism,  and  early  education,  115 

Catholic  Church,  missionaries  of,  2,  81,  91 ; 
clergy  of,  11-13;  Protestant  revolt 
against,  41 

Catholics,  in  Maryland,  56 

Cattle  rangers,  in  the  West,  285,  459,  450 

Cavaliers,  in  Virginia,  71 

Centennial  Exposition,  562 

Cervera  (ther-va'rii),  Admiral,  547 

Champlain  (sham-plan'),  explorations  of,  32, 
77 

Champlain,  Lake,  142,  238 

Champoeg  (now  Young's  Ranch),  278 

Chancellorsville,  battle  of,  413 

Chapultepec  (cha-pol-te-pek'),  battle  of,  275 

Charles  I,  gives  grant  to  Lord  Baltimore,  56 ; 
charters  Massachusetts  Bay  Company,  52 

Charles  II,  grant  to  William  Penn,  57  ;  gives 
New  Netherland  to  Duke  of  York,  62; 
and  Oregon  country,  207 

Charleston  (Vir.),  58,  106,  152,  394 

Charlestown  (Mass.),  138,  140 

Chatham,  Earl  of,  131.     See  William  Pitt 

Chattanooga,  battle  of,  417 

Chautauqua,  origin  and  growth  of,  569 

Chesapeake,  the,  234 ;  Affair,  238 


INDEX 


673 


Chicago,  298 ;  railway  connections  with  the 
East,  306;  rise  of,  322;  iron  and  steel 
industry,  474;  strike  of  1888,  515;  strike 
of  1894,  515 

Chickamauga  (chik  a  ma'ga)',  battle  of,  417 

Child  labor,  316-317,  491-492,  616 

Chile,  240 

China,  antiquity  of,  i ;  visited  by  Polo,  15 ; 
early  trade  with,  20;  trade  with  the 
United  States,  324;  rebellion  in,  551; 
indemnity,  552;  "open  door,"  552 

Chinese,  immigration  of,  499 ;  exclusion  act, 
506 

Chippewa  (chip'e-wa),  236 

Christian  religion,  spread  of,  2 

Church  of  England,  42,  52,  54 

Cincinnati,  219,  298,  299,  301,  302,  322 

Cities,  colonial,  106;  growth  of,  322,  490- 
491;  problems  of,  574;  civil  service  re 
form  in,  575-576 

City  government,  new  problems  of,  322-323 

City  manager  plan,  580 

Civil  service  reform,  534;  in  states  and 
cities,  575-576 

Civil  War,  390-426 ;  first  bloodshed,  397 ; 
campaigns  of,  398-422;  war  on  the 
water,  408-413;  close  of,  422;  cost  of, 
423-424;  effect  on  politics,  522 

Clark,  George  Rogers,  155-156 

Clark,  see  Lewis  and  Clark 

Classes,  in  European  society,  6-14 

Clay,  Henry,  235,  252,  253,  259,  261,  262,  376 

Clayton  Law,  534,  603 

Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty,  593 

Clergy,  11-13 

Clermont,  the,  302 

Cleveland,  301,  322,  474,  475 

Cleveland,  Grover,  515,  523,  524,  525,  540, 
541,  543,  545 

Clinton,  General  Sir  Henry,  152 

Clinton,  De  Witt,  299,  300,  301,  305,  344 

Coal,  production  of,  475 

Cold  Harbor,  battle  of,  420 

Colleges,  colonial,  116;  state  supported,  560 

Colombia,  Republic  of,  594 

Colorado,  early  Spanish  operations  in,  91,  92  ; 
admission  to  the  Union,  459 ;  history  of, 
459 ;  coal  industry,  475  ;  copper  mining, 
475 ;  gold  mining,  475 

Columbia  River,  204,  277 

Columbus,  Christopher,  life  and  discovery, 
23-26 

Commerce,  see  Trade 

Commission  government  in  cities,  579-580 

Committees  of  Correspondence,  130 


Common  law,  in,  112 

Common  Sense,  357 

Community  center  plan,  563-564 

Compromise  of  1850,  376-377 

Confederate  States  of  America,  391 

Confederation,  Articles  of,  see  Articles  of 
Confederation 

Confederation,  New  England,  55 

Congress,  First  Continental,  128,  130; 
Second,  130,  139,  141,  142,  143,  145,  154, 
159,  164,  167 

Congress,  under  the  Articles  of  Confedera 
tion,  165,  168;  under  the  Constitution,  173 

Connecticut,  founded,  55  ;  new  constitution, 
1 66;  in  Constitutional  Convention,  170; 
claims  on  western  land,  209;  suffrage  in, 
335  ;  education  in,  344 

Conscription,  during  the  Civil  War,  397 ; 
the  Great  War,  626-627 

Conservation  movement,  469,  470,  588,  589, 
590 

Constantinople,  fall  of,  20 

Constellation,  the,  190 

Constitution  of  the  United  States,  164-177, 
651-664;  commerce  and,  165,  168,  171, 
173;  demand  for,  167;  compromises  of, 
170-172;  drafting  of,  170-174;  contrasted 
with  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  172, 
173;  important  powers  of  Congress,  173; 
adoption  of,  174;  ratification  of,  174-176; 
Amendments  to,  181-182,  192  (note),  392- 
393,  432,  433,  434,  435,  526,  582,  660-664; 
Lincoln's  view  of,  393 ;  Southern  view  of, 
390.  See  also  Amendments  to  Constitu 
tional  Convention,  1787,  170 

Constitution,  the,  238 

Continental  currency,  183  (note)  < 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  358 

Copperheads,  403 

Copper  mining,  475 

Cornwallis,  General,  Charles,  153 

Coronado,  explorations  of,  31,  32 

Corporations,  see  Trusts 

Cortes  (kor- tils'),  or  Cortez,  conquest  of 
Mexico,  28,  29 

Cotton  gin,  291 

Cotton,  industry,  rise  of,  289-293 ;  produc 
tion  of,  373 ;  effect  on  slavery,  373 ;  and 
the  blockade,  410;  revival  of  trade,  446; 
spinning  in  the  South,  447 

County,  as  the  unit  in  the  South,  in 

Cowboys,  459,  460 

Cowpens,  battle  of,  153 

Criminals,  transported  to  America,  72 

Crisis,  the,  357 


674 


INDEX 


Crittcndcn  Compromise,  392 

Crockett,  Davy,  270 

Cropper  system,  444,  445 

Crown  Point,  141 

Crusades  and  trade,  14 

Cuba,   discovery  cf,    26;    exploration  from, 

30;    revolt  in,   544;    war  over,  545-549; 

position  in  the  Caribbean,  605 
Cumberland  Gap,  100,  212,  216 
Cumberland  Road,  220 
Currency  question,  530-531 

DA  GAMA  (gii'mii),  VASCO,  26 

Dakotas,  explored,  204  ;  growth  of,  461-462  ; 
admitted  to  Union,  463  ;  emigration  to,  498 

Danes,  immigration  of,  498 

Danish  West  Indies,  purchase  of,  606.  Sec 
Virgin  Islands 

Davenport,  John,  55 

Davis,  Jefferson,  391,  393,  394,  396,  414,  419 

Debs,  Eugene  V.,  515,  519,  631 

Debt,  Revolutionary,  assumption  of  state, 
182;  funding  of,  182;  national,  195 

Declaration  of  Rights,  128,  130 

Declaratory  Act,  125 

De  Grasse  (gras),  Count,  153 

De  Kalb,  Baron,  158 

Delaware,  founded  by  the  Swedes,  5,  58; 
unit  of  government,  1 1 1 ;  appointment  of 
colonial  governor  in,  114;  first  state  con 
stitution,  1 66;  ratifies  Constitution,  174 

De  Leon,  Ponce  (da  la  on',  pon'tha),  ex 
plorations  of,  30 

De  Lesseps  (les'eps),  Ferdinand,  593 

Democracy,  colonial,  112;  western,  222-227; 
industrial,  rise  of,  319-321;  early  Amer 
ican  principles  of,  328-330;  Hamilton's 
attitude  toward,  330;  Jefferson's  attitude 
toward,  330;  the  new,  573-586;  and 
suffrage,  585-586;  at  war,  626 

Democratic  party,  Republicans  take  the 
name  of,  255;  divided  in  1860,  386-387  ; 
and  slavery,  379;  influence  of  labor  on, 
513;  administrations  under,  522-524; 
issues  in,  524-531;  political  campaign, 
1916,  615 

Department  of  Labor,  513 

De  Soto  (so'to),  Hernando,  explorations  of, 
30 

Detroit,  surrendered  to  British,  237;  trad 
ing  center,  322 

Dewey,  Admiral  George,  546 

Diaz  (de'as),  Bartholomew,  23 

Dingley  Tariff  Act,  525 

Direct  primary,  581 


Director}^  the  French,  190 
Dissenters,  43 
District  of  Columbia,  376 
Division  of  labor,  312,  313 
Dominican  Republic,  605 
Donelson,  Fort,  401 
Dorchester  Heights,  140,  141 
Dorr's  Rebellion,  333-335 
Douglas,  Stephen,  379,  380,  383 
Draft,  the,  397,  626-627.     See  Conscription 
Drake,  Francis,  33~34 
Dred  Scott  decision,  381,  382 
Dunkards,  70 

Duquesne  (dii-kan'),  Fort,  85 
Dutch,  rise  of,  5 ;    Reformation  among,  41 ; 
found  New  Amsterdam,  60-61 

EARLY,  General,  421 

Earth,  thought  to  be  flat,  22 

Ecuador,  240 

Edison,  Thomas  A.,  484,  485-486 

Education,  early,  in  Europe,  8-9,  12-13; 
colonial,  114-116;  land  granted  for,  169; 
in  Northwest  Territory,  210;  on  the 
frontier,  225-226;  growth  of,  in  nine 
teenth  century,  339-352;  higher,  349- 
352;  development  of,  since  1860,  557-566. 
See  Schools 

Eight-hour  law,  616 

El  Caney,  battle  of,  547 

Electric  light,  484 

Elizabeth,  queen  of  England,  33-35  ;  trouble 
with  the  Puritans,  42;  names  Virginia, 
47  (note) 

Emancipation,  403-406 

Embargo  Act,  the,  231-233 

Emigration,  to  America,  reasons  for,  41-46; 
early,  66-68;  from  New  England,  Vir 
ginia,  and  the  Carolinas,  216 

Employees,  protective  organizations  of,  511- 

513 

Employers'  organizations,  513 

England,  origin  of,  2;  rivalry  with  France 
and  Spain,  4;  serfdom,  8;  explorations 
of,  33 ;  Reformation  in,  41-44;  treatment 
of  peasants,  44;  colonial  policies  of,  82- 
84;  contest  with  France  for  North 
America,  84-88;  imperial  colonial  policy, 
120-122;  commerce  with,  187-188;  treaty 
with,  188-189;  controversy  with  United 
States  during  Napoleonic  wars,  229-234; 
second  war  with,  229-240;  and  Holy 
Alliance,  241  ;  Oregon  boundary  dispute, 
279-280;  controversies  vnlh,  53Q-S41  '> 
menaced  by  Germany,  609 


INDEX 


675 


Ericsson,  Captain  John,  412 

Erie  Canal,  299-302 

Erie,  Lake,  battle  of,  238 

Erie  Railroad,  306 

Espionage  Law,  630 

"Established     Church,"     see     Church     of 

England 

Europe,  beginnings  of  American  history,  4 
European  War  of  1914,  609-637 
Excise  tax,  185,  195 
Export  trade,  growth  of,  488,  489 
Express,  origin  and  development  of,  306-307 

FARM  loan  system,  616 

Farm  machinery,  improvements  in,  296-298 

Farming  in  the  colonies,  98-99,  100-101 

Farragut,  Admiral  David  G.,  403,  413 

Federal  Reserve,  Banks,  530-531;  Law,  603 

Federal  Trade  Commission,  534 

Federalist,  The,  174,  358 

Federalist  party,  186,  187,  189-191,  195, 
251 ;  newspapers,  355 

Ferdinand,  of  Spain,  24 

Field,  Cyrus  W.,  308 

Fifteenth  Amendment,  434-435,  664 

"Fifty-four  forty,  or  fight,"  278-279 

Filipinos,  549,  551,  554 

Florida,  explored,  30-31 ;  ceded  to  England, 
88;  ceded  to  Spain,  156;  purchased  by 
the  United  States,  206,  269;  admitted 
to  the  Union  (note),  206;  secedes,  390 

Foch(fosh), Ferdinand,  Marshal  of  France,  633 

Food,  national  control  of,  628 

Foote,  Commodore  Andrew  II.,  401,  413 

Ford  Theater,  422 

Foreign  labor,  488 

Forests,  waste  of,  493 ;  national,  591-592 ; 
ranges,  592 

Fourteenth  Amendment,  432,  663 

Fox,  Charles  James,  friend  of  America,  131 

France,  early  history,  2 ;  rivalry  with  Eng 
land  and  .  Spain,  4 ;  early  unity  in,  4 ; 
explorations  of,  32-33,  77-81;  colonial 
policies  of,  81-82 ;  contest  with  England 
for  Ohio  country,  84-86;  make  alliance 
with  United  States,  149-150;  aids  in 
the  war  of  the  Revolution,  149-154; 
Revolution  in,  187 ;  controversy  with 
United  States,  190;  attacked  by  Ger 
many,  609 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  116,  138,  149,  156,  158, 
170 

Fredericksburg,  battle  of,  401 

Free  silver,  see  Silver 

Free  soil  party,  379 


Free  trade,  see  Tariff 

Kret'dmen,  see  Negro 

Fremont,  J.  C.,   275,  380 

French,  see  France 

French  and  Indian  war,  85-90 

French  Revolution,  187 

Friends  (Quakers),  43 ;   found  Pennsylvania, 

57;     influence   of,    70;     attitude   towards 

slavery,  325,  367 
Frontier,  disappearance  of,  489 
Fuel,  national  control  of,  628 
Fugitive  slave  law,  377 
Fulton,  Robert,  302 
Funding  the  debt,  182-184 
Fur  trade,  in  the  early  Northwest,  93,  284 

"GAG  rule,"  372 

Gage,  General  Thomas,  136 

Galveston,  449,  579 

Garneld,  James  A.,  523;  assassination  of, 
523,  535 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  272,  337,  371 

Gates,  General  Horatio,  149,  153 

Gateways  to  the  Middle  West,  212 

Genet  (zhe-na'),  188 

Genoa  (jen'oa),  15 

George  III,  king  of  England,  rejoices  over 
peace  of  1763,  98;  stubbornness  of,  120- 
121 ;  and  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
142;  and  the  Hessian  soldiers,  146 

Georgia,  founded,  59 ;  made  a  royal  prov 
ince,  60;  government  of,  112;  first 
state  constitution,  166;  ratifies  Consti 
tution,  174;  secedes,  390;  war  in,  418; 
revival  of  industry  in,  448 

German  Government,  622 

Germans,  318,  610 

Germantown,  battle  of,  146 

Germany,  i6th  century,  4-5;  Samoan  ques 
tion,  542  ;  in  the  Great  War,  609-637 

Gettysburg,  battle  of,  414-415 

Ghent,  Treaty  of,  239 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey,  47  (note) 

Goethals,  Colonel  George  W.,  595 

Gold,  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  29,  30;  in  Cali 
fornia,  281,  282  ;  mining,  475 

Gompers,  Samuel,  512,  513 

Gorgas,  Dr.  William,  595 

Governing  class,  colonial,  113 

Government,  colonial,  in  New  England,  107- 
109;  in  the  Middle  Colonies,  no,  in; 
in  the  South,  in;  likenesses  in  govern 
ment  between  the  North  and  the  South, 
111-112;  representative,  112,  113;  con 
tests  between  government  by  royal  gov- 


6;6 


INDEX 


ernors  and  by  representative  assemblies, 

114;  causes  of  increasing  interest  in,  573- 

575;  direct,  581 
Grady,  Henry  W.,  442 
Grandfather  clause,  437 
Grant,  General  Ulysses   S.,    401,    416,    418, 

419,  420,  421,  422,  434,  522 
Gray,  Captain  Robert,  207,  277 
Great  Lakes,  explored,  33,  78,  79 
Great  War,  626-637 
Greeley,  Horace,  356,  392,  522 
Greenback,  527,  528;  party,  529 
"Green  Mountain  Boys,"  141,  149 
Greene,  General  Nathanael,  153 
Grower,  Lord,  133 
Guam,    549 
Guilford,  battle  of,  153 

"HAIL,  Columbia,"  written,  190 

Haiti,  26,  605,  606 

Hale,  John  P.,  379 

Halifax,   141 

Hamilton,    Alexander,    168,    170,    182-187, 

188,  192,  330 

Hancock,  General  Winfield  Scott,  523 
Hard  times,  231-232 
Harnsden,  W.  F.,  306 
Harper's  Ferry,  raid  at,  383-384 
Harrisburg,  99 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  524,  541 
Harrison,  William  Henry,  262-263 
Hartford,    founded,    55;    population   of,    in 

colonial  times,  106;   convention,  236 
Harvard  College,  116 
Hawaii,  542,  543 
Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  359 
Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty,  594 
Hayes,  Rutherford  B.,  523 
Hayes-Tilden  dispute,  522-523 
Hayne,  Paul  Hamilton,  360 
Hayne,  Robert,  257 
Hazard,  Rowland,  294 
Henry,  Fort,  401 
Henry,  Patrick,  123,  138 
Henry  VII,  aids  John  Cabot,  33 
Henry  VIII,  not  interested  in  exploration, 

33  ;  break  with  the  Pope,  42,  44 
Hessians,   146 
High  schools,  origin  of,  348-349 ;  growth  of, 

559-560 
Hohenzollerns,  iron  rule  of,  624;    dream  of 

world  dominion,  624-625 
Holland,  Pilgrims  in,  51 ;  see  Dutch 
Holy  Alliance,  240-241 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  5 


Homestead  Act,  457-458,  462,  467 
Homesteads,    demand    for    free,    385 ;     act 

passed,  457-458;    and  immigration,  497- 

498 

Hood,  General  Joseph,  419 
Hooker,  Joseph,  401,  413 
Hooker,  Thomas,  55 
Hoover,  Herbert,  629 
House  of  Representatives,  171,  172 
Houston,  General  Sam,  271 
Howe,  Elias,  295 
Hudson,  Henry,  60-6 1 
Hudson  River,  discovery  of,  61 
Huerta,    603-604 
Hughes,  Charles  E.,  615,  616 
Huguenots,  settle  in  America,  62 
Hutchinson,  Anne,  109,  no 

IBERVILLE  (e-bcr-veT),  or  d'Iberville, 
Pierre  le  Moyne,  80 

Idaho,  admission  to  the  Union,  464 ;  gold 
mining  in,  475 

Illinois,  in  Northwest  Territory,  211;  im 
migration  to,  219;  population,  1810,  221; 
admitted  to  the  Union,  222;  pioneers 
from  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  325; 
early  education  in,  347 ;  early  suffrage 
in.  333 ;  coal  industry,  475 

Illiteracy,    557-558 

Immigration,  German,  317-318,  497;  Irish, 
317,  496;  Scandinavian,  498;  Bureau  of, 
498 ;  Chinese,  499 ;  various  nationalities, 
500;  changes  in,  500;  settlement  in 
cities,  501-502 ;  increase  in,  502-503 ; 
transient,  504 ;  effect  on  citizenship,  504 ; 
arguments  for  and  against  restriction, 
505 ;  laws  restricting,  506 

Imperialism,  a  political  issue,  552,  553 

Impressment,  of  American  sailors,  233-234 

Impressment,  of  colonial  labor,  72 

Income  tax,  agitation  for,  525-526;  un- 
constitutionality  of,  526;  act  passed,  526; 
constitutional  amendment,  598;  law,  603 

Independence,  Declaration  cf,  142-144; 
as  a  basis  for  woman  suffrage,  337 ; 
principles  of  democracy  in  329.  See 
Appendix,  647-650 

Indian  Territory,  opened  to  settlement, 
464.  See  Oklahoma. 

Indiana,  in  Northwest  Territory,  211:  emi 
gration  to,  219;  population,  1810,  221; 
admitted  to  the  Union,  222 ;  pioneers 
from  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  325; 
early  suffrage  in,  333 ;  early  education 
in,  347 ;  coal  industry  in,  475 


INDEX 


677 


Indians,  North  American,  habits  of,  39-40; 
in  Northwest  Territory,  215;  in  Oregon 
territory,  278;  along  the  Santa  Fe  Trail, 
281 

Indies,  the  East,  early  trade,  with,  14,  20; 
route  to,  26,  32;  trade  with,  46 

Indies,  West,  see  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  Haiti 

Industries,  in  colonial  times,  103-105,  316; 
protection  of,  248;  New  England  and 
Middle  States,  251;  machinery  and, 
288-326;  in  the  South,  447;  changes  in, 
482-483;  captains  of,  510;  disputes 
in,  514-517;  new  markets  for,  543 

Insurance,  soldiers  and  sailors,  630 

Intercolonial  Wars,  84-90 

Internal  improvements,  259-260 

Interstate  commerce,  regulation  of,  532; 
Commission,  532 

Inventions,  printing,  invention  and  develop 
ment,  45,  566;  the  great,  298-310;  cause 
of  progress,  324 ;  development  of,  483 

Inventors,  483-481) 

Iowa,  in  Louisiana  Territory,  203 ;  admis 
sion  to  the  Union,  268;  education  in, 
268 ;  immigration,  498 

Iron  industry,  colonial,  104 ;  in  western 
Pennsylvania,  296;  in  the  South,  448; 
growth  of,  since  1865,  472-474;  Lake  Su 
perior  region,  474 

Irving,  Washington,  359 

Isabella,  of  Spain,  24 

Italians,  immigration  of,  500 

Italy,  in  sixteenth  century,  4-6;   early  trade 

Of,    15,   20-21 

JAGKSON,  Andrew  in  Florida,  206;  at  New 
Orleans,  239 ;  presidential  candidate, 
252;  elected  President,  254;  inaugurates 
spoils  system,  255-256;  and  the  tariff, 
256;  and  nullification,  256-259;  and  the 
Texan  republic,  271-272 

Jackson,  General  Thomas  J.  ("Stonewall"), 
395,  413 

James  I,  intolerant  toward  Dissenters,  43; 
charters  London  and  Plymouth  Com 
panies,  47  ;  revokes  Virginia  charter,  50 ; 
religious  intolerance  of,  5 1 

James  II,  king  of  England,  62 

Jamestown,  48 

Japan,  route  to,  33 ;  trade  with  the  United 
States,  324 

Japanese,  exclusion  act,  506 

Jay,  John,  156;    188 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  and  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  143;  and  the  "Northwest 


Ordinance,"  169;  not  a  member  of 
Constitutional  Convention,  170;  founds 
a  political  party,  185-186;  candidate 
against  Adams,  189;  elected  President, 
192 ;  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  199-202 ; 
policies  of,  as  President,  195-206,  231 , 
and  the  embargo,  231 ;  refuses  third  term, 
233 ;  and  democracy,  330 ;  educational 
plans,  350;  and  the  press,  355 

Jews,  immigration  of,   500 

Johnson,  Andrew,  impeachment  of,  434 

Johnston,  General  Joseph  E.,  395,  419, 
422 

Joliet  (zho-lya'),  79,  198 

Jones,  John  Paul,  154 

KANSAS,  immigration  into,  268;  warfare 
in,  380,  381 ;  admitted  to  the  Union,  381 

Kansas-Nebraska  Act,  379-380 

Kaskaskia,  156 

Kearny,  General,  Philip,  275 

Kcarsargc,  the,  411 

Kentucky,  Daniel  Boone  in,  100;  Blue 
Grass  region,  100;  resolutions,  191; 
population,  1790,  197;  under  the  ordi 
nance  of  1787,  212;  movement  of  popu 
lation,  216;  population,  1800,  217; 
pioneer  life,  224-225;  and  the  tariff, 
249;  suffrage,  333,  admitted  to  the 
Union,  368 ;  remains  in  the  Union,  395 

King  George's  War,  84 

King  William's  War,  84 

King's  College,  116 

Kings,  early  power  of,  13 

King's  Mountain,  153 

Knights  of  Labor,  511-512 

"Know  Nothing"  party,  321 

Kosciuszko  (kSs-i-us'ko),  158 

Ku  Klux  Klan,  436-437 

LABOR,  colonial  problem,  49,  67 ;  division 
of,  312,  313;  and  women,  315-316; 
child,  316-317;  emigrant  labor,  317; 
the  early  movement,  318;  organization 
of,  319,  511-513;  early  leaders  of,  320- 
321;  competition  between  native  and 
foreign,  321;  and  education,  341,  345; 
foreign,  in  American  industry,  488; 
organized,  and  the  law,  603 

Labor  unions,  federation  of,  320,  6.29 

Labrador,  discovery  of,  33 

Lafayette  (la-fa-yef),  Marquis  de,  147,  153. 
158 

Lancaster-Bell  system  of  education,  342- 
343 


678 


INDEX 


Land,  sale  of  western,  216-217;  disposition 
of  western,  259-260;  public,  disposal  of, 
466-467  ;  monopoly  of,  466  ;  government 
commission,  467-468;  minerals  and  tim 
ber,  469.  See  Homesteads 

Land-ownership,  101,  103 

Lanier,  Sidney,  360 

La  Salle  (la-sal'),  79~So,  198 

Latin- America,  independence  of,  240;  the 
Monroe  doctrine,  243 

Latter  Day  Saints,  see  Mormons 

Leavenworth,  Fort,  275 

Lee,  General  Charles,  150 

Lee,  Richard  Henry,  167 

Lee,  General  Robert  E.,  395,  400,  401,  414, 
415,  418,  419,  420,  421,  422 

Legislature,  first  colonial,  50;  colonial,  112; 
first  state,  166 

Leopard,  the,  234 

Lewis,  Meriwether,  203 

Lewis  and  Clark,  expedition,  203-205  ;  jour 
nal  of,  277 

Lexington,  battle  of,  136,  138 

Liberator,  371 

Liberty  Loans,  628 

Liberty  party,  379 

Libraries,  563 

Lincoln,  debates  with  Douglas,  382-383 ; 
sketch,  386,  406-407 ;  nominated,  386 ; 
first  inaugural,  393-394 ;  call  for  volun 
teers,  394,  399;  and  emancipation,  403- 
404;  reelection,  1864,  408;  at  Hampton 
Roads,  421;  death  of,  422-423;  and  re 
construction,  431 

Lisbon,  21,  23,  28 

Liquor  question,  535-536" 

Locomotive,  steam,  303-307 

London,  early  trade  of,  15-16 

London  Company,  47,  50,  52 

Long  ballot,  576 

Long  Island,  battle  of,  144 

Longfellow,  Henry  W.,  359 

Lookout  Mountain,  battle  of,  418 

Loom,  hand,  294 

Louis  XIV,  king  of  France,  79 ;    wars  of,  82 

Louis  XVI  aids  the  American  colonists,  149- 
150;  execution  of,  187 

Louisiana,  territory  ceded  to  Spain,  88,  90; 
Spanish  rule  in,  90-91 ;  description  of, 
198-200;  purchase  of,  201;  exploration 
of,  203-265;  extent  of,  214;  state  of, 
admitted  to  the  Union,  222  ;  inhabitants  in, 
222;  and  the  tariff,  249-250;  secedes,  390 

Louisville,  218,  220,  322 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  359 


Lundy's  Lane,  236 

Lusitania,  the,  613,  614,  615,  632 

Lutherans,  70 

Lyon,  Mary,  345 

Lyon,  General  Nathaniel,  403 

MADERO,  Francisco,  603 

Madison,  James,  170,  192,  235,  330 

Magazines,  rise  and  growth  of,  357,  567- 
568;  illustrated,  567;  popular,  568 

Magellan,  28 

Maine,  route  to  Quebec,  142 ;  admission  to 
the  Union,  222  (note),  370;  boundary 
dispute,  263 

Maine,  the,  545 

Manhattan,  Island  of,  61.     See  New  York 

Manila,  battle  of,  546,  547,  548,  549 

Mann,  Horace,  343-344,  351 

Manual  training,  562.     See  Schools 

Manufacturing,  beginnings  of,  103-104 ;  in 
the  home,  104;  acts  forbidding,  120; 
favored"  by  Hamilton,  248;  women  in, 
315-316;  children  and,  316-317;  cotton, 
in  the  South,  447.  See  Tariff 

Marconi,  Guglielmo,  485 

Markets,  foreign,  search  for,  543 

Marquette  (mar-kef),  79,  198 

Maryland,  founded,  56;  religious  toleration 
in,  56 ;  appointment  of  colonial  governor 
in,  114;  state  constitution,  166;  Cum 
berland  Road,  220;  remains  in  the  Union, 
395;  and  the  Civil  War,  400 

Mason  and  Dixon  line,  58  (note) 

Massachusetts,  colony  founded,  52-53; 
in  the  New  England  Confederation,  55; 
charter  changes,  83 ;  land-ownership  in, 
102;  liberty  in,  no,  113,  114;  colonial 
governor  in,  114;  opposes  stamp  act, 
123;  in  the  Revolution,  125-128,  136- 
141;  first  state  constitution,  166;  rati 
fies  Constitution,  175  ;  western  land  claim, 
209;  education  in,  343;  and  slavery,  366 

Maximilian,  540 

Mayflower  Compact,  51 

McClellan,  General  George  B.,  in  the  Civil 
War,  399,  400,  404,  408 

McCormick,  Cyrus,  298 

McKinley,  William,  as  President,  524,  525, 
530,  544,  545,  588 

Meade,  General  George  G.,  414-415 

Mecklenburg  County  (N.  C.),  Declaration, 
152 

Melting  pot,  America  the,  75 

Mennonites,  70 

Merchant  marine,  481-482,  616 


INDEX 


679 


Merchants,  growth  of,  in  Europe,  13-14; 
colonial,  99,  105-106 

Mcrrimac,  the,  412 

Merritt,  General  Wesley,  549 

Meuse  (muz)  section,  634 

Mexico,  conquest  of,  by  Cortez,  28-30; 
explorations,  31-32;  declares  itself  free, 
240 ;  formation  of  the  union,  269 ;  war  with, 
274-276;  Maximilian  in,  540;  troubles 
with,  603-605;  German  intrigue  in,  619 

Michigan,  in  Northwest  Territory,  211; 
population  in  1810,  221;  admission  to 
Union,  268;  copper  mining  in,  475 

Michigan,  University  of,  350 

Miles,  General  Nelson,  548 

Militarism,  625-626 

''Millions  for  defense,"  190 

Milwaukee,  322 

Mineral  industries,  474-475 

Minnesota,  admitted  to  the  Union,  268; 
coal  industry,  475 ;  Scandinavian  immi 
gration  to,  498 

Minutemen,  136-138 

Missionary  Ridge,  battle  of,  418 

Missionaries,  2,  29 

Mississippi  River,  discovery  of,  31;  ex 
plored  by  French,  79-80;  coveted  by 
Americans,  199-200;  early  travel  on, 
199;  as  a  boundary,  206;  movement 
westward  to,  215-221;  movement  across 
221-222;  steamboat  traffic  on,  267; 
levees  built,  449 

Mississippi,  under  the  Ordinance  of  1787, 
211-212;  admitted  to  the  Union,  222; 
secedes,  390 

Missouri,  Daniel  Boone  in,  216;  road  to, 
220;  admitted  to  the  Union,  222,  267, 
369-370;  pioneers  in,  267;  population, 
1820,  267;  contest  over  slavery,  267; 
remains  in  the  Union,  395 ;  in  the  Civil 
War,  395  (note),  401-402 

Missouri  Compromise,  252,  267,  369-370; 
repealed,  379 

Mobile,  449 

Money,  paper,  158,  168,  183,  250,  527-528 

Monitor,  the,  412 

Monitorial  system  in  education,  342-343 

Monmouth,  battle  of,  150 

Montdidier  (Mon-did-ya') 

Monroe,  200;  and  Florida  purchase,  206, 
252;  administrations  of,  251-253;  "era 
of  good  feeling,"  251 

Monroe  Doctrine,  242-243,  540,  640 

Montana,  admission  to  Union,  463 ;  gold 
industry,  475;  copper  mining  in,  475 


Montcalm  (mont-kam'),  87 

Monterey  (mon-ta-ra/),  battle  of,  274 

Montezuma  (mon-te-zo'ma),  29 

Montgomery,  convention  at,  391 

Montgomery,   General  Richard,   142 

Montreal,  established,  77-78;  taken  by 
English,  88 

Moravians,  70 

Morgan,  J.  Pierpont,  488 

Mormons,  origin  of,  282  (note) ;  migra 
tions  of,  283 ;  settlement  in  Utah,  283 ; 
polygamy,  460 

Morrill  Act,  557,  560,  562 

Morris,  Robert,  158,  170 

Morse,  S.  F.  B.,  307-308 

Mount  Holyoke,  345 

Mount  Vernon,  156 

Mugwump,  523-524 

Murfreesboro,  battle  of,  403 

NAPOLEOX,  187;  First  Consul  of  France, 
190;  and  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  198- 
200 ;  and  American  commerce,  230 ;  at 
Waterloo,  239 

Napoleon  III,  5:0 

National  forests,  591-592 

National  Manufacturers'  Association,  513 

National  Republicans,  or  Whig  party,  262 

Native  American  party,  321 

Natural  resources,  waste  of,  469,  493 

Navigation,  laws,  120,  121 

Navy,  exploits  during  the  Revolution,  154- 
155;  in  the  War  of  1812,  238-239;  in 
the  Civil  War,  408-413;  trip  around  th.: 
world,  597  ;  in  the  Great  War,  626-632 

Nebraska,  immigration  into,  268 ;  history  of, 
458;  admission  to  the  Union,  458;  Scan 
dinavian  immigration  to,  498 

Necessity,  Fort,  85 

Negro,  after  emancipation,  430;  suffrage, 
432-433;  political  leaders,  435;  deprived 
of  vote,  437-438;  economic  position  of, 
443-444;  and  new  planting  system,  444; 
independent  farmer,  445 ;  wages  of,  446 ; 
the  race  problem,  452-453 

Neutrality,  Washington's  proclamation  of, 
188;  proclamation  of  1914,  610 

Nevada,  history  of,  458  ;  admission  to  Union, 
458  ;  gold  industry  in,  475 

New  Amsterdam,  founded,  60-6 1.  See  New 
Netherland 

New  England,  confederation,  55;  ship 
building  in,  99  ;  land-ownership  in,  102  ; 
government  in,  107-110;  emigration  from, 
216;  and  the  War  of  1812,  236;  rise  of 


68o 


INDEX 


industry  in,  251,  289-295;  and  tariff  of 
1816,  250;  textile  industry,  476 

New  France,  see  France 

New  Granada,  240 

New  Hampshire,  founded,  55 ;  representa 
tive  government  in,  112;  appointment  of 
royal  governor  in,  114;  state  constitution 
in,  1 66 

New  Haven,  55 

New  Jersey,  origin  of  name,  63 ;  Quaker 
proprietors  of,  63 ;  royal  province,  63 ; 
land  ownership  in,  102 ;  unit  of  govern 
ment,  1 1 1 ;  representative  government, 
112;  appointment  of  royal  governor  in, 
114;  College  of,  116;  Washington's  re 
treat  through,  146;  state  constitution, 
1 66;  ratines  Constitution,  174;  manu 
factures  and  the  tariff,  249 

New  Mexico,  Spanish  in  the  territory,  91 ; 
ceded  to  United  States,  276;  exploration 
by  Pike,  279-280;  admission  to  Union, 
465-466 

New  Netherlands,  plan  for  settlement,  61 ; 
capture  by  English,  62 

New  Orleans,  established,  80;  growth  of, 
91;  French  post,  198;  passes  to  the 
United  States,  201-203 ;  trade  through, 
219,  222;  battle  of,  236,  239;  captured 
by  Farragut,  403 ;  shipping  port,  449 

New  Rochelle,  62 

New  York,  origin  of  name,  62 ;  becomes  a 
royal  province,  62 ;  settlements  and  popu 
lation,  99;  land-ownership  in,  102;  early 
trade,  105  ;  counties  in,  1 1 1 ;  representa 
tive  government  in,  112;  appointment  of 
royal  governor  in,  114;  state  constitution, 
1 66;  ratines  Constitution,  175;  western 
land  claims,  209;  gateway  to  the  Middle 
West,  212;  manufactures  and  the  tariff, 
249 ;  manhood  suffrage  in,  333  ;  education 
in,  344;  and  slavery,  366 

New  York  City,  one  of  the  chief  cities,  106 ; 
early  travel,  107 ;  seat  of  King's  College, 
116;  in  the  Revolution,  145,  149,  150,  160; 
Washington  inaugurated  at,  176;  capital 
of  the  United  States,  184;  transportation 
by  canal,  300,  301 ;  river  transportation, 
302,  477,  479 ;  ocean  transportation,  309, 
501,  502;  port  of  emigration,  318,  501, 
502;  growth  of,  322,  325,  491;  early 
government  in,  323 ;  beginnings  of  free 
schools,  341;  public  high  school,  348; 
newspapers,  353,  355,  356;  educational 
extension,  563 

New  Spain,  280 


Nicaragua  Canal  route,  594 

Nobility,  European,  10-11 

Non-importation  agreement,  130 

Non-intercourse  Act,  232-233 

Norfolk,  1 06 

North,  differs  from  South,  111-112;  divided 
opinion  on  the  Civil  War,  391-392 ;  ad 
vantages  of,  in  the  Civil  War,  396 ;  war 
plans  of,  397-398 

North  American  Reviav,  357 

North  Carolina,  explored,  47  (note) ; 
founded,  58;  emigrants  from,  100;  in 
the  Revolution,  152,  153;  state  con 
stitution,  167;  ratifies  Constitution,  176; 
land  for  settlement  in,  216;  suffrage  in, 
333  ;  early  free  schools  in,  347  ;  secedes, 
395 ;  revival  of  industry  in,  448 ;  textile 
industry,  476 

North  Church,  136 

North  Dakota,  admitted  to  the  Union,  463 ; 
history  of,  463  ;  see  Dakotas 

Northwest  Ordinance,  169,  170,  211 

Northwest  Territory,  168-169;  land  in,  197; 
government  of,  210;  British  forts  in,  218; 
provision  for  education  in,  346-347 

Norwegians,  immigration  of,  498 

Novel,  the  American,  358 

Nueces  River,  274 

Nullification,  doctrine  of,  191,  256-259 

OGLETHORPE  (o'gl-thorp),  James,  59 
Ohio,  the  country,  contest  for,  85 ;   explora 
tion   of,    155-156;     Northwest  Territory, 
emigration  to,  219;  population,  1810,  221; 
admitted  to  Union,  222;    and  the  tariff, 
249;    canals  in,  301;    migration  to,  325; 
early  suffrage  in,   333 ;    state  university, 
350;   coal  industry,  475 
Ohio  Company,  85 
Ohio   River,  gateway  to   the  Middle  West 

and  South,  212,  217-219 
Oil  industry,  475  ;  see  Standard  Oil  Company 
Oklahoma,     settlement    and    admission    to 

Union,  464-465  ;   oil  industry,  475 
Oklahoma  City,  464 
Old  Ironsides,  see  Constitution 
Ordinance,  Land,  of  1785,  346,  350 
Ordinance,  Northwest,  169,  170,  211 
Ordinance  of  1787,  168-169,  170,  21°.  3°8 
Oregon,  early  claims  to,   207 ;    controversy 
with  England  over,  277-279;    settlement 
of,  277 ;   admitted  to  the  Union,  279,  455 
Oregon,  the,  547,  593 
Otis,  James,  123 
Owen,  Robert  Dale,  321,  345 


INDEX 


681 


PACIFIC  Ocean,  discovered  by  Balboa,  27-28 

Paine,  Thomas,  142,  143,  357 

Palos  (pa  los'),  harbor  of,  24 

Panama  Canal,  449,  592-596 

Panama,  Isthmus  of,  27 

Panics,  250,  261,  492 

Parcel  post,  599 

Paris,  Treaty  of  (1763),  88,  90;   (1783),  156 

Parties,  political,  origin  of,  186-187 

Patroons,  61 ;   system,  no 

Paulding,  James  K.,  358 

Pawtucket,  founded,  no 

Payne-Aldrich  Tariff  Act,  525 

Pea  Ridge,  battle  of,  403 

Peasants,  aid  in  development  of  America,  3; 
life  of,  in  Europe,  6—9,  44 

Peggy  Stewart,  127 

Pemberton,  General  John  C.,  416 

Penn,  William,  57,  58 

Pennsylvania,  land  grant  to  Penn,  57; 
religious  toleration  in,  57 ;  Presbyterians 
in,  7cv;  settlement  of,  100;  character  of 
settlers,  74 ;  land-ownership  in,  102 ; 
counties  in,  in;  early  legislature,  112; 
governing  class,  113;  appointment  of 
royal  governor  in,  114;  University  of, 
116;  first  state  constitution,  166;  gov 
ernment  in,  166;  in  the  Revolution,  142, 
146,  147 ;  manufactures  and  the  tariff, 
249;  iron  industry,  296,  474;  the  canal 
system,  301-302 ;  and  slavery,  366 ;  Lee 
in,  414  ;  iron  industry,  474 ;  oil  industry, 
475  ;  coal  industry,  475 

Pennsylvania,  University  of,  116 

Perry,  Commodore  Oliver  H.,  238 

Persecution,  religious,  43-44 

Pershing,  General  John  Joseph,  605,  627,  633 

Persia,  trade  with,  14,  15,  20 

Peru,  conquered  by  Pizarro,  30;  declares 
itself  independent,  240 

Peter  the  Great,  93 

Petition,  right  of,  and  slavery,  372-373 

Philadelphia,  founded,  58;  population  of 
(I7°3),  106;  opposes  stamp  act,  124; 
Second  Continental  Congress  in,  139; 
capture  of,  by  the  British,  146;  British 
leave,  150;  Constitutional  Convention, 
170,  174;  national  capital,  184;  early 
government,  324;  carpet  manufacturing, 
476;  Centennial  Exposition,  562 

Philippines,  28,  546,  549,  551,  553,  554,  616 

Phillips,  Wendell,  337 

Pickett's  charge,  415 

Pike,  Zebulon,  205,  279-280 

Pilgrims,  50-54 


Pinckney,  General  Charles  C.,  170 
Pinzon  (pen-thon'),  explorations  of,  27 
Pioneers,  life  among,  223-227;   and  political 

opinions,  226-227 
Pirates,  Mediterranean,  231 
Pitt,  William,  Earl  of  Chatham,  87,  125,  131, 

132,  138 
Pittsburgh,  85,  100,  212,  218,  219,  296,  474, 

Pizarro  (pi-za'ro),  conquest  of  Peru,  30 
Planter,  southern,  decline  in  power  of,  451 
Planting  system,  break-up  of,  444 
Plymouth,  founded,  51;    hardships  at,   52; 

in  the  New  England  Confederation,  55 
Plymouth  Company,  47,  51,  52 
Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  359-360 
Poland,  5 

Political  leadership,  a  new  type  of,  588 
Political   parties,    evils   in   management   of, 

580-581 

Politics,  three  decades  of,  247 
Polk,  James  K.,  263,  274,  278 
Polo,  the  brothers,  15;  Marco,  15;  book  of 

travels,  24 

Polygamy,  abolished,  460 
Pony  express,  457 
Population,  in  English  colonies,  84;    on  eve 

of  Revolution,  99-100;   foreign  born,  318; 

center  of,  489-490 
Populist  party,  529 
Portland,  463 
Porto  Rico,  occupation  of,  548 ;   government 

of,  554 ;   position  in  the  Caribbean,  605 
Port  Royal,  founded,  32;    captured  by  the 

English,  85 

Portsmouth,  Treaty  of,  596-597 
Portugal,  interest  in  exploration,  4 
Portuguese,  explorations  of,  21,  23 
Postal  savings  banks,  599 
Potomac,  Army  of,  403 
Poverty,   a  cause  of  immigration,   71;    in 
crease  of,  491 
Preparedness,   in  times  of  the  Revolution, 

159-160 

Presbyterians,  43,  70 
President,  the,  234 

President,  creation  of  office  of,   172;    elec 
tion,     192     (note),     332.     See     Twelfth 

Amendment 

Presidential  electors,  popular  choice  of,  332 
Press,  the,  colonial,  115,  353-354;    freedom 

of,  181,  354;   rise  and  growth  of,  352-357  ; 

growth    of,    after    Revolution,    355-356 ; 

in     the     nineteenth     century,     356-357; 

recent  advance  in,  566-567 


682 


INDEX 


Price,  General  Sterling,  401 
Prince  Henry  the  Navigator,  21 
Princeton,  battle  of,  140 
Princeton  College,  origin  of,  116 
Printing,  development  of,  45,  356,  566 
Profiteering,  legislation  against,  629 
Progressive  party,  rise  of,  601-602  ;   decline, 

615 

Progressive  Republicans,  600-601 

Prohibition,  536 

Proprietary  colonies,  56-59 

Proprietors,  56-59 

Prospectors,  457-458 

Protestant  Reformation,  41-42 

Protestants,  in  Europe,  41 ;  in  Pennsylvania, 
57;  in  France,  62 

Providence,  founded,  55 ;  spinning  mill  in, 
291 

Prussianism,  623-625 

Puritans,  origin  of,  42 ;  found  Massachu 
setts,  52;  character  of,  54;  life  among, 
68-69 

QUAKERS,  see  Friends 

Quebec,    founded,    32,    77;     captured    by 

British,  87 ;   American  expedition  against, 

142 
Queen  Anne's  War,  84 

RAILROADS,  development,  303-307 ;  in 
South,  306,  448;  in  the  West,  455,  478, 
479 ;  growth  of,  since  Civil  War,  477 ; 
first  transcontinental,  479;  construction, 
479;  government  subsidies,  481;  in 
fluence  of,  481 ;  combinations  among,  509 ; 
regulation  of,  532,  533;  controlled  by 
government,  629 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  35,  47  (note) 

Randolph,  John,  170 

Reaper,  invented,  298 

Recall,  579 

Reclamation  Act,  590-591 

Reconstruction  in  the  South,  430-453 ; 
problems  of,  430 

Referendum,  578-579 

Religion,  early  Christian,  3  ;  and  the  schools, 
340-342 

Religious  worship,  freedom  of,  181 

"Renter"  System,  444-445 

Republican  party,  186;  reforms,  195-196; 
second  organized,  380;  convention  of 
1860,  385 ;  attitude  of  leaders  toward  the 
South,  393;  influence  of  labor,  513; 
administrations  of,  since  1868,  522-524; 
and  the  protective  tariff,  524-525;  and 


imperialism,  552-553;  split  in,  601  ; 
political  campaign,  1916,  615 

Revere,  Paul,  136 

Review,  Outline  for,  96,  177,  245,  362,  439, 
57i,  634 

Revolution,  the  American,  136-161 

Rhode  Island,  founded,  54-55;  election  of 
colonial  governor,  114;  first  state  constitu 
tion,  1 66;  ratify  Constitution,  176;  in 
dustry  in,  292,  294;  suffrage  struggle,  333 

Richmond,  398,  399,  400,  418,  420,  422 

Right  to  vote,  see  Suffrage 

Rights,  Declaration  of,  128 

Rio  Grande,  274 

Roads,  in  colonial  times,  107 ;  Shore  Road, 
107;  National  Road,  220,  299 

Rochambeau  (ro'sham'bo'),  General,  153 

Rockefeller,  John  D.,  487,  508,  510 

Rocky  Mountains,  204,  205,  457 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  appoints  Government 
Public  Lands  Commission,  467 ;  and  the 
coal  strike  of  1902,  516;  in  the  Spanish 
War,  547;  as  President,  588-597;  in 
Progressive'  movement,  60 1 ;  mediator 
for  the  Dominican  Republic,  605 ;  cam 
paign  of  1916,  615 

Rosecrans,  General  William  S.,  417 

Rotation  in  office,  226-227 

"Rough  Riders,"  547 

Rover,  the,  279 

Russia,  sixteenth  century,  5 ;  in  North 
America,  93 ;  and  claims  in  the  West, 
241,  243;  emigration  from,  500;  in  the 
Great  War,  609 ;  revolution,  634 

Russo-Japanese  peace,  596-597 

SACAJAWEA,  204 

St.  Lawrence  River,  77-78,  142 

St.  Louis,  founded,  81 ;  under  the  Spanish 
rule,  91;  French  post,  198;  exploration 
center,  204,  205 ;  growth  of,  267 ;  fur 
trade  in,  284;  trade  with  cities,  302; 
rail  connections,  306 ;  steamboat  trade, 
322;  Mississippi  River  open,  417;  first 
manual  training  high  school,  563 

St.  Mihiel  (san'-me-yel),  634 

Salt  Lake  City,  283 

Samoa,  542 

Sampson,  Admiral  William  T.,  547 

San  Antonio  (san  an-to'ni-6),  93,  269,  271 

San  Diego  (san  de-a'go),  founded,  93 

San  Domingo,  605,  606 

San  Francisco,  93,  281,  282,  463 

Sanitary  Commission,  United  States,  425 

San  Juan  Hill  (san  h6-zin'),  battle  of,  547 


INDEX 


683 


Sun  Salvador,  26 

Santa  Ana,  defeated,  271 

Santa  Fe,  93,  280 

Santa  Fe  trail,  279-280 

Santiago,  battle  at,  547 

Saratoga,  British  surrender  at,  149 

Sault  Sainte  Marie  (so  sant  ma-re'),  79 

Savannah  (Georgia),  152,  420 

Savannah,  the,  309 

Scandinavians,  in  sixteenth  century,  5; 
Reformation  among,  41 ;  immigration  of, 
498 

Schenectady,  99 

Schools,  in  pioneer  days,  225-226;  religious 
control  of,  340;  development  of  free, 
341 ;  charity  support  of,  341 ;  low  cost, 
342-343 ;  tax  support,  343 ;  leaders  for 
free,  343-346 ;  in  New  York,  344 ;  move 
ment  in  Northwest,  346-347 ;  in  the 
South,  347;  high,  348,  349,  559-560; 
Latin  grammar,  348;  condition  of,  in 
1880,  557-558;  in  1916,  558;  technical, 
561-562  ;  manual  training,  562 

Schuyler,  General  Philip,  149 

Scotch-Irish,  70,  100 

Scott,  General  Winfield,  275,  392 

Seattle,  463 

Secession,  390-395  ;  reasons  for,  390 

Sedition  law,  191 

Senate  of  the  United  States,  origin  of,  171; 
popular  election  to,  582 

Separatists,  42-43,  51 

Scrapis,  the,  155 

Serfs,  46 

Seven  Days,  battle  of,  400 

Seven  Years'  War,  86-87,  131,  198 

Seventeenth  Amendment,  582,  064 

Seward,  William  II.,  386,  421 

Sewing  machine,  invented,  294-295 

Shannon,  the,  238 

Shays,  Daniel,  rebellion  of,  168 

Shenandoah  Valley,  100,  421 

Sheridan,  General  Philip,  421 

Sherman  Act,  533 

Sherman,  Roger,  170 

Sherman,  W.  T.,  419,  420,  421,  422 

Shiloh,  battle  of,  403 

Ship  subsidies,  482 

Shipbuilding,  104-105,  308-309,  448,  482,  630 

Short  ballot,  602 

Silver,  mining  in  West,  458;  coinage  of, 
528-530;  "bimetallism,"  530 

Sitka,  forts  at,  93 

Sixteenth  Amendment,  526,  598-599,  658 

Slater,  Samuel,  290-291 


Slave  trade,  49-50;   and  commerce,  171 

Slaveholders,  political  power  of,  373 

Slavery,  introduction  of,  49,  72;  and  the 
Constitution,  171;  in  various  sections, 
210,  212,  216,  282;  struggle  over,  364- 
386;  abolition  movement,  371-374; 
Compromise  of  1850,  375-377;  Emanci 
pation,  403-406 ;  Thirteenth  Amendment, 
406.  See  Negro 

Smith,  Captain  John,  48 

Smith,  Joseph,  283 

Smuggling,  121,  126,  232 

Socialism,  rise  and  growth  of,  517-519,  533 

Socialist  party,  519,  617,  632 

South,  land-ownership  in,  102 ;  colonial 
plantations  in,  106;  differs  from  the 
North,  107-111,  364;  and  the  tariff,  253; 
resources  of,  325;  education  in,  347; 
demands  of  leaders,  393 ;  preparation 
for  war,  395  ;  leaders  of,  395  ;  reconstruc 
tion,  430-438;  military  rule  in,  433; 
condition  of,  at  close  of  Civil  War,  442- 
444;  rise  of  the  new,  442-453;  coal  and 
iron  in,  448 ;  development  of  transporta 
tion,  448-449;  emigration  to,  450; 
changes  in.  life  and  labor,  450;  new 
problems,  450;  planting  aristocracy,  451; 
race  problem,  452-453;  iron  deposits  in, 
474;  oil  industry  in,  475;  special  educa 
tional  problems  of,  558 

South  Carolina,  founded,  58;  frontiers  of, 
100;  early  legislature  in,  112;  in  Revolu 
tion,  152,  153;  first  constitution,  167; 
land  for  settlement  in,  217;  nullification, 
258;  railway  experiments,  305;  early 
education  in,  350;  secedes,  390;  revival 
of  industry  in,  448 ;  textile  industry,  476 

South  Dakota,  admitted  to  the  Union,  463 ; 
history  of,  463.  See  Dakotas 

Spain,  origin,  2 ;  rivalry  with  England  and 
France,  4;  early  unity  in,  4;  conditions 
of,  in  sixteenth  century,  4;  aids  Colum 
bus,  24;  explorations  of,  24-32  ;  conquest 
of  Mexico,  28-29;  of  Peru,  30;  Armada 
defeated,  35 ;  loses  Florida,  88 ;  gains 
Louisiana  territory,  88-90;  work  on,  in 
the  Southwest,  90-91 ;  colonization  policy, 
92-93;  at  war  with  Great  Britain,  154; 
loses  Louisiana  to  Napoleon,  199;  and 
the  South  American  republics,  240;  war 
against  (1898),  544-549 

Spanish-American  War,  544-549 

Speculation,  era  of,  250 

Speech,  freedom  of,  181 

Speedwell,  the,  51 


684 


INDEX 


Spices,  trade  in,  14,  26 

Spinning  industry,  289-295 

Spokane,  463 

Spoils  system,  255,  534,  575 

Spottsylvania  Court  House,  420 

Squatter  sovereignty,  375,  381,  386 

Stagecoach,  colonial,  107 ;  Great  Eastern 
Mail,  221 

Stamp  Act,  124,  131,  152 

Stamp  Act  Congress,  123-124 

Stamp  tax,  122-124,  133 

Standard  Oil  Company,  475,  487,  508,  533 

Standish,  Miles,  52  (note) 

"  Star  Spangled  Banner,"  the,  237 

Stark,  General  John,  149 

State  constitutions,  first,  166-167 

Steam  engine,  invention  of,  289 

Steamboat,  invention  of,  302 

Steel  industry,  297,  448,  472-474 

Stephens,  A.  H.,  391,  421 

Stephenson,  George,  303 

Steuben,  Baron  von,  148,  158 

Stevens,  John,  303 

Stevens,  Thaddeus,  431 

Stowe,  Harriet  Beecher,  378 

Strikes,  514-517 

Stuarts  in  England,  43 

Stuyvesant,  Peter,  62 

Submarine  policy  of  Germany,  613-615,  617 

Subsidies,  to  encourage  shipping,  309 

Suffrage,  colonial,  112;  in  first  states,  167; 
woman,  167,  335-33?,  582-586;  manhood, 
328-335;  agitation  for,  331-333.  See 
Negro 

Sumner,  Charles,  431,  433 

Sumter,  Fort,  fired  on,  394 

Sun,  New  York,  first  penny  paper,  356 

Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  created, 
172 

Sutter's  Mill,  281 

Swedes,  early  explorations,  5 ;  found  Dela 
ware,  58;  immigration  of,  498 

TAFT,  William  H.,  Tariff  Commission  es 
tablished  by,  527;  election  of,  597; 
administration  of,  598,  599,  600;  and 
Mexican  situation,  604 

Taney,  Chief  Justice,  382 

Tariff,  early  demand  for,  168;  first  protec 
tive,  184-185;  and  war  of  1812,  240; 
protective  development  of  the  issue,  247- 
250;  of  1816,  249;  of  Abominations,  253; 
and  the  South,  253-254 ;  and  nullification, 
256;  the  compromise,  259;  revision  of 
1842,  263;  issv.c  on  cvc  of  Civil  War,  384; 


Republicans  favor,  385;  revisions  of, 
since  1872,  524-527;  revision  of  1909, 
598;  revision  of,  in  1913,  602 

Tariff  Commission,  527 

Taxation,  in  Europe,  9 ;  power  of  Congress, 
165,  173 

Taxes,  war,  628,  629 

Taylor,  General  Zachary,  274,  375 

Tea,  tax  on,  126-127  ;  Boston  Party,  126-127 

Teachers,  work  in  development  of  schools, 
346 

Technical  schools,  562 

Telegraph,  invention  of,  307 

Telephone,  invention  of,  484 

Tenant  system,  growth  of,  468 

Tennessee,  pioneers  in,  100;  population, 
1790,  197;  movement  of  population,  199; 
in  territory  south  of  Ohio,  212,  217;  emi 
gration  to,  216;  admitted  to  the  Union, 
222,  368 ;  manufactures  and  the  tariff,  249 ; 
secedes,  390;  war  in,  418;  iron  deposits, 


474 


Territories,  western,  Jn  1876,  459 

Territory,  Northwest,  210;  south  of  Ohio, 
211 

Texas,  visited  by  La  Salle,  80;  annexation 
favored,  263 ;  a  political  issue,  264 ; 
claimed  by  United  States  citizens,  269 ; 
American  migration  into,  269,  270; 
Mexicans  in,  270;  independence  de 
clared,  271;  controversy  over  annexation, 
272-273;  admission  to  Union,  273-274; 
cause  of  War  with  Mexico,  274;  secedes, 
390 ;  oil  industry,  475 

Textile  industry,  103,  476 

Thirteenth  Amendment,  392-393,  662 

Thomas,  General  George  H.,  401,  417 

Ticonderoga,  Fort,  141,  149 

Tilden,  Samuel  J.,  523 

Tippecanoe,  262  . 

Toleration,  religious,  in  Maryland,  56 

Tories,  colonial,  134;  and  the  Revolution, 
1 60 

Town;  meaning  of,  108 

Town  meetings,  108-110 

Townshend  Acts,  124-125,  126 

Township,  meaning  of,  108 

Trade,  influence  on  national  life,  4;  with 
the  East,  4,  14-16,  20;  growth  of,  14-16; 
laws,  120,  121 ;  British  policy  in,  120: 
contest  for,  168;  Annapolis  conference 
on,  170;  regulation  of,  171;  down  the 
Mississippi,  199;  through  New  Orleans, 
219;  injured  by  English  and  French 
blockade,  229-230;  competition  for,  248; 


INDEX 


685 


foreign,  324;  in  the  North,  411 ;  with  the 

Far  East,   549;    during  the   Great  War, 

612 

Trade  Acts,  133 

Trade  union,  origin  of,  319-320 
Traders,  see  Merchants 
Transportation,  improvements  in,   299-307 ; 

in  the  South,  448-449;    changes  due  to, 

482 
Travel,    in   colonial    times,    106-107 ;    four 

eras  of,  213;   East  and  West,  220-221 
Treaties,  right  to  negotiate,  171 
Treaty  of  Cession,  206,  222 
Treaty  of  Purchase,  201 
Trenton,  battle  of,  146 
Tribune,  New  York,  influence  of,  356 
Trusts,    formation   of,    508-510;     "soulless 

corporation,"  510-511 ;   laws  against,  533  ; 

dissolution  of,  599  ;   Clayton  Law,  603 
Truxton,  Captain  Thomas,  190 
Turner,  Nat,  rebellion,  372 
Tutuila,  542 

Twelfth  Amendment,  192,  656 
Tyler,  John,  263-264,  273,  274 
Typesetting  machine,  566 

Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  378 

"Underground  railroad,"  378 

Union  Pacific  Railroad,  479 

United  States  mail,  220-221 

University,  extension,  563  ;  state,  beginnings 

of,  349-350 
Utah,  territory  organized,   284;    history  of, 

460;   admission  to  Union,  460-461 

VALLEY  Forge,  147-148 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  261-262,  379 

Vancouver,  George,  207 

Vasco  da  Gama  (ga'ma),  26 

Vassar  College,  564-565 

Venezuela,  240 ;   affair,  540-541 

Venice,  early  trade  of,  15 

Vermont,  admitted  to  the  Union,  222  (note) ; 
boundary  of,  263 

Verrazano  (va'rat  sii/no),  explorations  of,  32 

Vespucci  (ves  po'che),  Amerigo,  26-27 

Vicksburg,  surrender  of,  416 

Villa,  604 

Vincennes  (vin  sen?/),  156 

Virgin  Islands,  606 

Virginia,  name  of,  47  (note) ;  founded,  48 ; 
becomes  a  royal  province,  50;  Presby 
terians  in,  70;  cavaliers  in,  71;  appoint 
ment  of  royal  governor  in,  114;  protests 
against  Stamp  Tax,  122-123;  resolutions, 


191-192;  western  land  claims,  209; 
emigration  from,  216;  land  for  settle 
ment,  217  ;  suffrage  in,  331 ;  secedes,  395 

Virginia,  Army  of,  403,  404,  420 

Vocational  education,  growth  of,  561-563 

Volunteer  System,  394,  397,  627 

Vote,  right  to,  2 ;  colonial  restrictions  on 
right  to,  112.  See  Suffrage 

WAGE  System,  318-319 

War  of  1812,  229,  234-240 

War  Hawks,  234 

War  Savings  Stamps,  628 

War  with  Mexico,  270-276 

Warren,  General  Joseph,  140 

Wars,  Intercolonial,  84-90 

Washington,  George,  at  Fort  Duquesne,  85 ; 
at  Braddock's  defeat,  85-86;  in  Revolu 
tion,  141,  144-145,  146,  150,  153;  sketch, 
J56-I57;  and  the  Constitution,  168,  170; 
elected  first  President,  176 ;  as  President, 
181-189;  Farewell  Address,  189 

Washington,  capital  at,  184;  Capitol  burned, 
237 

Washington,  territory  of,  279;  admitted  to 
the  Union,  463 ;  history  of,  463 

Watt,  James,  289 

Webster,  Daniel,  255,  257-258,  263 

Webster-Ashburton  Treaty,  263 

West,  settlerqejit  of,  to  the  Mississippi,  .2Qg-7__ 
221;  beyond  tin.*  Mis-ir-sippi,  22i-22_2j_ 
the  Fa"r  West,  284-286 ;  industries ,  .olT 
298-299;  growth  of  the  Fa^r ^jjji&st,  455~ 
45$; "geography  of,  455,  457;  home 
steaders  and  prospectors  in,  457;  oil 
industry  in,  475 

West  Point,  150 

West  Virginia,  formation  of,  395 ;  admitted 
to  the  Union,  395 ;  iron  deposits,  474 

Western  lands,  state  claims  to,  209-210 

Whig  party,  261-263,  379 

Whisky  Rebellion,  185-186 

White  Plains,  battle  of,  145 

Whitman,  Dr.  Marcus,  277 

Whitney,  Eli,  291-292 

Whittier,  John  Greenleaf,  359 

Wilderness,  battle  of,  420 

Willard,  Emma,  344-345 

William  and  Mary  College,  116 

Williams,  Roger,  54 

Wilmot,  David,  375 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  195  ;  Industrial  Relations 
Commission,  468 ;  new  Tariff  Commission, 
527  ;  Governor  of  New  Jersey,  602  ;  nomi 
nated  for  the  presidency,  602;  adminis- 


686 


INDEX 


trations  of,  602-606;  in  the  Great  War, 
609-637 

Wilson-Gorman  Tariff  Act,  525 

Winchester,  battle  of,  421 

Winthrop,  John,  53,  54 

Wisconsin,  in  the  Northwest  Territory,  211 ; 
reached  by  the  westward  movement  of 
population,  266;  admitted  to  the  Union, 
268;  civil-service  reform  in,  577;  direct 
primary  adopted  in,  581 ;  woman  suffrage 
movement  in,  584 

Wolfe,  General  James,  87 

Women,  first,  in  Virginia,  48-49;  and  early 
manufacturing,  104;  in  the  American 
Revolution,  159;  pioneers,  223-225;  in 
settlement  of  the  West,  285  ;  in  factories, 
315-316;  wages  of,  319;  organized,  320; 
early  discriminations  against,  335 ;  pro 
test  against  discriminations,  335-336; 
women's  rights,  convention  of  1848,  336; 
suffrage  and  the  slavery  agitation,  337 ; 
education  of,  350-351;  and  the  Civil 


War,  425-426 ;  labor  of,  491-492  ;  higher 
education  of,  564-565 ;  education  and 
employment  of,  575  ;  suffrage,  582-586 

Woolen  industry,  colonial,  103 ;  machinery 
in  the,  293-294 

Workingman,  see  Labor 

Wright,  Frances,  320,  336,  345 

Wright,  Martha,  336 

Wyoming,  in  Louisiana  Territory,  203 ;  ad 
mission  to  Union,  464,  584;  first  state  to 
grant  woman  suffrage,  583-584 

X  Y  Z  Affair,  190 

YALE  College,  116 

York,  Duke  of,  obtains  grant  of  New  York 

62 

Yorktown,  siege  of,  153 
Young,  Brigham,  283 
Young's  Ranch,  278 

ZENGER,  Peter,  and  free  press,  354 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 


Renewed  books  are  subject  to  i 


iate  recall. 


RECEIVED. 


•  10 '67  -W 


ION  14  '67     PM 


LD  2lA-60m-7,'66 
(G4427slO)476B 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


w 


YC  58097 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

->  *  .-w      /.%  *    ',.,  .,         •i-.s-i    li  ,    'itk-'. 


